









BULLETIN WO. 1 


FEDERAL BOARD 

FOR 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 




STATEMENT OF POLICIES 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1917 










BULLETIN NO. 1 


in FEDERAL BOARD 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 


* 


STATEMENT OF POLICIES 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1917 





FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 


MEMBERS. 


David F. Houston, Chairman, 
Secretary of Agriculture. 
William C. Redfield, 

Secretary of Commerce. 
William B. Wilson, 

Secretary of Labor. 


James P. Munroe, 

Manufacture and Commerce. 
Charles A. Greathouse, 
Agriculture. 

Arthur E. Holder, 

Labor. 


P. P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education. 


EXECUTIVE STAFF. 


C. A. Prosser, Director. 


Layton S. Hawkins, 

Assistant Director 

for Agriculture. 
Lewis H. Carris, 

Assistant Director for 

Industrial Education. 


Josephine T. Berry, 

Assistant Director. 

for Home Economics. 
Charles H. Winslow, 

Assistant Director. 

for Research. 


Address all communications to Federal Board for Vocational Education, 
Washington, D. C. 


0 * of D. 

JAN r 1918 







'/ihf- 


CONTENTS. 


V 




Page. 

Foreword. 7 

Cooperation between the Federal Board and the States. 7 

Agencies of cooperation. 7 

Administrative regions. v . 8 

Public supervision and control.*.. 9 

Vocational education as defined in the act. 9 

Amount of money made available for vocational education. 10 

POLICIES ADOPTED BY THE FEDERAL BOARD. 

Part I. General Statements. 12 

1. Trustees for the Federal money. 12 

2. Appointment of State treasurer as custodian of Smith-Hughes funds.. 13 

3. Acceptance of act by the governor. 13 

4. Principles for distribution of Federal money. 13 

5. Conditions for granting Federal money. 14 

6. Importance of an efficient use of funds. 15 

7. Method of reimbursement. 15 

8. Questions concerning institutions using Federal funds. 16 

9. Absolute standards. 16 

10. Discretionary standards. 17 

11. Persons for whom vocational education is intended. 17 

12. Nature of cooperative agreement. 17 

13. Federal Board will deal with State boards only. 18 

14. Agreement for one year only. 18 

15. Helps through studies and investigations. 18 

16. Supervision of work within the States. 19 

17. Standards for plant and equipment. 19 

18. Utilization of privately owned plants. 19 

Part II. Questions Involving Policy. 20 

Section I. Questions of a general nature.. . 20 

1. Policy regarding financial statements of State boards operating on 

different fiscal years. 20 

2. Nature of annual report from States, section 8. 20 

3. Right of Federal Board to require reports. 21 

4. How ascertain use of national money in accordance with act. 22 

5. How ascertain whether States are prepared to use the Federal 

money. 23 

6. Failure of State to qualify in time. 23 

7. Policy regarding mixed classes, some pupils under 14. 23 

8. Policy concerning payment to teacher conducting mixed classes.. 24 

9. How far trace Federal dollar to avoid illegal matching. 24 

10. Matching State and Federal money for groups rather than indi¬ 
viduals. 25 


3 












































4 CONTENTS. 

Part II. Questions Involving Policy—C ontinued. 

Section 1. Questions of a general nature —Continued. Page. 

11. Use of Federal money for teacher-training and teaching of voca¬ 

tional subjects in single institution. 26 

12. Meaning of the 20 per cent minimum for teacher training. 26 

13. Concerning traveling expenses of supervisor and itinerant teacher.. 27 

14. Safeguarding control by State board over a loaned supervisor. 27 

15. Delegation of power by State board to expend Federal money_ 28 

16. Pblicy as to few or many schools in a State. 29 

17. Power of Federal Board to reject plans when money is given 

broadcast. 29 

18. Use of Federal funds for established or new undertakings. 29 

19. Different standards for white and colored schools?. 30 

20. Will board approve use of Federal moneys in schools for delin¬ 

quents, etc. 30 

21. Interpretation of well-rounded course of study. 30 

22. Standardization of well-rounded courses of study. 31 

23. Is selection and placement a legitimate part of teacher-training?. 32 

24. Designation by State board on order of legislature of a particular 

institution. 32 

25. Teacher training in institutions of higher and lower standards.... 32 

26. Policy toward certification in the States. 33 

27. Policies relative to acceptance by legislatures or State boards of 

one or more funds. 34 

28. For the maintenance of what classes may Federal moneys for 

teacher-training be used?. 35 

29. May any money be used by the States for commercial education?... 36 

Section II. Agricultural education . 36 

1. Morrill fund, Nelson fund, Smith-Hughes fund. 36 

2. May person divide time between supervision and training of 

teachers of agriculture?. 37 

3. Part payment of Director of Vocational Education from fund for 

agriculture. 37 

4. Payment of supervisors and directors employed by State and local 

schools. 37 

5. Use Federal money for salary of one supervisor for the three fields.. 37 

6. Supervisors of agriculture—State leader of boys’ and girls’ clubs .. 38 

7. Federal money for short courses in agriculture. 38 

8. Size of communities in which agricultural fund may be expended.. 39 

9. State or local money for salaries of teachers matched with Federal 

funds. 39 

10. Teaching experience in lieu of professional training. 40 

11. Money for Nelson fund and Smith-Hughes fund for same teacher¬ 

training classes. 40 

12. Policy of Federal Board for teacher-training under Nelson Act_ 40 

13. Teacher-training and secondary classes in same building. 41 

14. Supervision of agriculture in other than Smith-Hughes schools... 41 

Section III. Industrial education . 42 

1. Entrance requirements for all-day schools. 42 

2. Are alternate day schools all-day or part-time schools?. 42 

3. Meaning of ‘ ‘ not less than nine months per year ”. 42 

4. Meaning of “hours” in the act. 43 

5. Practical work on useful or productive basis. 43 

































CONTENTS. 


5 


Part II. Questions Involving Policy —Continued. 

Section III. Industrial education — Continued. Page. 

6. What “industrial subjects” from Federal moneys. 43 

7. Must schools be open to persons of 16 years and over?. 43 

8. Basis for minimum hours for part-time courses. 44 

9. Kinds of work to be reimbursed in part-time schools. 44 

10. Meaning of ‘‘ supplemental to daily employment ”. 45 

Section IV. Home economics . 46 

1. Interpretation “half time, practical work,” etc. 46 

2. Meaning of * 1 supplemental to daily employment ”. 47 

3. Effect of omission of home economics from title of act. 47 

4. Successful experience in teaching in lieu of professional training.. 48 


APPENDIXES. 

A. Smith-Hughes Act and Amendment . 49 

B. Legal Requirements Imposed by the Smith-Hughes Act . 56 

I. Upon the States. 56 

II. Upon the Federal Board. 57 

III. Upon the Secretary of the Treasury. 58 

IV. Upon the custodian for vocational education—State treasurer. 58 

V. As to expenditure of appropriations. 58 

VI. Upon the State boards. 59 

Statistical Tables Showing Grants Under the Act. 

1. Annual grants by the Federal Government, for vocational education 

under act approved February 23, 1917. 62 

2. Amount of grants by Federal Government for vocational education by 

regions and States, for each fiscal year 1917-1926, and annually there¬ 
after. 63 

3. Allotment to the States for the fiscal year 1917-18 of appropriations by 

the Smith-Hughes Act for vocational education..:.—. 65 

4. Quarterly payments to the States for the fiscal year 1917-18 of appro¬ 

priations available under the Smith-Hughes Act. 67 

Index . 69 





























Regional headquarters: 1 New York. 2 Atlanta. 3 Indianapolis. 4 Kansas City. 5 San Francisco. 

Administrative Regions for the Federal Board for Vocational Education. 


























FOREWORD. 


COOPERATION BETWEEN THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND THE STATES. 

The Smith-Hughes Act provides a scheme of cooperation between 
the Federal Government and the States for the promotion of voca¬ 
tional education in the fields of agriculture, trade, home economics, 
and industry. 

Under this act the Federal Government does not propose to under¬ 
take the organization and immediate direction of vocational training 
in the States, but does agree to make from year to year substantial 
financial contribution to its support. It undertakes to pay over to 
the States annually certain sums of money and to cooperate in foster¬ 
ing and promoting vocational training and the training of voca¬ 
tional teachers. The grants of Federal money are conditional, and 
the acceptance of these grants imposes upon the States specific obli¬ 
gations to expend the money paid over to them in accordance with 
the provisions of the act. 

This cooperation of the States with the Federal Government is 
based upon four fundamental ideas: First, that vocational educa¬ 
tion being essential to the national welfare, it is a function of the 
National Government to stimulate the States to undertake this new 
and needed form of service; second, that Federal funds are necessary 
in order to equalize the burden of carrying on the work among the 
States; third, that since the Federal Government is vitally interested 
in the success of vocational education, it should, so to speak, purchase 
a degree of participation in this work; and, fourth, that only by cre¬ 
ating such a relationship between the central and the local Govern¬ 
ments can proper standards of educational efficiency be set up. 

AGENCIES OF COOPERATION. 

The machinery established by the act is devised to secure effective 
cooperation in promoting vocational education. The law provides 
for the appointment by the President of a representative Federal 
Board for Vocational Education. The members of this board are the 
Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary 

7 


8 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


of Labor, and the Commissioner of Education, together with three 
citizens who represent, respectively, the manufacturing and com¬ 
mercial, the agricultural, and the labor interests of the Nation. 
One member is elected annually by the board as chairman. To 
provide agencies representing the States, the act requires that State 
boards of not less than three members shall be created by act of 
legislature. Each State board is to work in cooperation with the 
Federal board in carrying out the provisions of the act. 

The staff, appointed by the Federal board, consists of a director, 
who is the executive officer, four assistant directors—one for agri¬ 
culture, one for industrial education, one for home economics, and 
one for research—and regional and other agents reporting imme¬ 
diately to the assistant directors. 

Before this machinery can fully operate in a State, the legislature 
must create a State Board for Vocational Education to cooperate with 
the Federal board. After the appointment or designation of such 
a board, any State may accept the benefits of the appropriations 
made under the law. 

The scheme of education proposed contemplates that each State 
shall submit to the Federal board a plan outlining the method by 
which it proposes to conduct its vocational education activities. 
These plans the Federal board must carefully examine; and if it 
finds them to be in conformity with the spirit and purpose of the 
act, it is authorized to direct that the moneys apportioned to the 
various States be paid. In other words, partly by the act itself, 
partly by the Federal board, and partly by the State board in coop¬ 
eration with the Federal board, standards of vocational education 
are established meeting the approbation of both the State and Fed¬ 
eral Governments. Each in its own field supreme, the State board 
and the Federal board, in order to function at all, must come together 
on the ground thus briefly described. 

ADMINISTRATIVE REGIONS. 

For purposes of administration and inspection under the Smith- 
Hughes Act the Federal board has divided the country into five sec¬ 
tions or regions. In defining these regions the States are grouped 
as follows: 

I. North Atlantic. —Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu¬ 
setts, Connecticut, Bhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
and Maryland. Headquarters to be in New York City. 

II. Southern. —Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
Florida, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, and 
Texas. Headquarters in Atlanta. 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


9 


North Central. —Michigan, Ohio, West Virginia, Indiana, 
Kentucky, Wisconsin, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri. 
Headquarters in Indianapolis. 

IV. West Central .—North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kan¬ 
sas, Oklahoma, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and New Mexico. 
Headquarters in Kansas City. 

V. Pacific. —Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Nevada, Washington, Oregon, 
and California. Headquarters in San Francisco. 

An agent of the Federal board for the fields of agriculture, trade, 
and industrial subjects is to be assigned to each region; the agents 
for home economics remain in Washington. These Federal agents 
are, in general, to act as administrative representatives of the Federal 
board in the field, to gather information regarding methods adopted 
by the several State boards for the administration of the act, and 
to inspect the work of the State boards in so far as it has to do with 
the requirements of the law, with the decisions and policies of the 
Federal board and with the approved plans for the States. 

PUBLIC SUPERVISION AND CONTROL. 

The guiding principle of the vocational education act—and it can 
not be too strongly emphasized that this principle applies to every 
phase of activity under that act—is that the education to be fur¬ 
nished must be under public supervision and control , and designed 
to train persons for useful employment, whether in agriculture, trade 
and industry, or home economics. 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AS DEFINED IN THE ACT. 

To the extent that it is subsidized by the Federal Government 
under the Smith-Hughes Act, vocational training must be vocational 
training for the common, wage-earning employments. It may be 
given to boys and girls who, having selected a vocation, desire prepa¬ 
ration for entering it as trained wage earners; to boys and girls 
who, having already taken up a wage-earning employment, seek 
greater efficiency in that employment; or to wage earners established 
in their trade or occupation, who wish through increase in their 
efficiency and wage-earning capacity to advance to positions of re¬ 
sponsibility. No academic studies can be supported out of Smith- 
Hughes money. 

ANNOUNCEMENT OF POLICIES. 

Subsequent to its organization on July 21, 1917, the Federal board 
has been chiefly occupied with problems of organization and with 
the initial tasks of inaugurating its cooperation with the States. 

24441°—17—Bull. 1-2 


10 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


In August the board held at Washington a series of conferences with 
representatives of the State boards. At these conferences the pur¬ 
pose of the act was discussed with particular reference to the general 
principles upon which it is based and to the methods by which these 
principles should be brought into practice. 

This bulletin presents a summary of the policies thus far agreed 
upon by the Federal board for administering the act. It must be 
regarded as preliminary and tentative, since sufficient time has not 
yet elapsed to permit the board to view the problems of administra¬ 
tion from every possible angle. The board therefore in publishing 
these policies desires it to be understood that, while carefully deter¬ 
mined, they are but initial policies established for the early months 
of its administration. Part I of the presentation of policies includes 
general policies or standards adopted by the Federal board; Part II 
includes principally rulings upon and a discussion of points raised 
at the hearings given to the State Boards for Vocational Education 
held in Washington in August. This discussion falls under four 
general subheads: Considerations of a general nature, agricultural 
education, industrial and trade education, and home-economics 
education. 

In addition to the policies the bulletin contains in the appendix an 
analysis of what may be termed the absolute legal requirements of 
the Smith-Hughes Act. The obligations imposed by the statute are 
delineated as imposed upon the States, the Federal board, the Secre¬ 
tary of the Treasury, the State custodian for vocational education, 
and the State boards. This analysis, taken in conjunction with the 
policies, furnishes an answer to many legal questions which have 
been asked either of the Federal board or of the State boards. 

The appendix also contains a copy of the act of February 23, 1917 
(Public, No. 347, Sixty-fourth Congress), and statistical tables 
showing amount of grants to the States which will be available if 
the States comply with the requirements of the act. 

AMOUNT OF MONEY MADE AVAILABLE. 

The moneys set aside by Congress for vocational education are 
appropriated on a graduated scale, the amount increasing year by 
year up to 1926, when the maximum is reached. This maximum be¬ 
comes the annual appropriation established by the act, and is con¬ 
tinued indefintely after the year 1926. Every dollar of the Federal 
money appropriated for the purpose of cooperating with the States 
either in the payment of salaries or in the preparation of teachers, is 
furnished upon condition that it be matched by an equal amount 
appropriated for the same purpose by the State, the local com¬ 
munity, or both, in which the Federal money is to be spent. 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 11 

The tabular summary of grants given on page 62 shows the 
amount available each year. The total grant by the Federal Govern¬ 
ment increases from $1,860,000 in 1917-18 to $7,367,000 in 1925-26, 
the latter amount being continued indefintely. The appropriation 
for salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors in agriculture 
increases from $548,000 in 1917-18 to a maximum of $3,027,000 in 
1925-26; the appropriation for salaries of teachers in trade, home 
economics, and industry increases from $566,000 in 1917-18 to 
$3,050,000 in 1925-26; and the appropriation for teacher—training 
from $546,000 in 1917-18 to $1,090,000—this maximum for teacher¬ 
training being reached in the year 1920-21. 

Since these appropriations must be matched, dollar for dollar, 
by the States, it is obvious that the total amount of money brought 
under cooperative supervision by the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education and the State boards is double the amount shown by the 
table of summary grants. 1 It should also be borne in mind that the 
Federal grants and the State moneys matched against the Federal 
grants are available only for payments of salaries and for the 
maintenance of teacher-training. It is obvious that the resources 
actually devoted to secondary school vocational education under 
joint supervision and control of the Federal and State boards will 
greatly exceed the Federal and State grants for the purposes specified 
in the act, for the reason that the maintenance of secondary voca¬ 
tional education involves expenditures for buildings, equipment, 
and for many other purposes not brought under the purview of the 
act. 


1 Table 1, Appendix, p. 62. 



STATEMENT OF POLICIES 

COVERING THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SMITH-HUGHES ACT. 


Part I. 

I. STATE BOARDS ARE TRUSTEES 1 FOR THE FEDERAL MONEY. 

They not only are agents for the State in carrying on work in voca¬ 
tional education, but they are also trustees of Federal moneys. As 
such the}^ are responsible 2 to the Federal Government, through the 
Federal board, for the proper expenditure of such funds in conformity 
with plans submitted by the States and approved by the Federal 
board. 

When a State accepts the provisions of the Federal act a coopera¬ 
tion 3 is established between the National and State Governments 
under which the two boards act as agents, respectively, for the Nation 
and the State. It is understood that the Federal funds will be sent 
continuously 4 from year to year for the support of the joint enter¬ 
prises as long as the State observes the terms of the cooperative agree¬ 
ment. It is further understood that from time to time the terms of 
this agreement may be changed or modified upon the initiative of 
either party and upon mutual consent. 


1 “ * * * the appropriation for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of 

agricultural subjects and of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects 
shall be devoted exclusively to the payment of salaries of such teachers, supervisors, or 
directors having the minimum qualifications set up for the State by the State board, 
with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education.” (Sec. 9.) 

2 “ That whenever any portion of the fund annually allotted to any State has not 
been expended for the purpose provided for in this act, a sum equal to such portion shall 
be deducted by the Federal board from the next succeeding annual allotment for such 
fund to such State.” (Sec. 15.) 

“ That the Federal Board for Vocational Education may withhold the allotment of 
moneys to any State whenever it shall be determined that such moneys are not being 
expended for the purposes and under the conditions of this act * * (Sec. 16.) 

“ That if any portion of the moneys received by the custodian for vocational educa¬ 
tion of any State under this act, for any given purpose named in this act, shall, by any 
action or contingency, be diminished or lost, it shall be replaced by such State, and until 
so replaced no subsequent appropriation for such education shall be paid to such 
State * * *.” (Sec. 17.) 

8 “ That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriations provided for in sections 
2, 3, and 4 of this act, any State shall, through the legislative authority thereof, accept 
the provisions of this act and designate or create a State board, consisting of not less 
than three members, and having all necessary power to cooperate, as herein provided, 
with the Federal Board for Vocational Education in the administration of the provi¬ 
sions of the act.” (Sec. 5.) 

4 “ That there is hereby annually appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not 
otherwise appropriated, the sums provided in sections 2, 3, and 4 of this act, to be 
paid to the respective States for the purpose of cooperating with the States in paying 
the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects, and teachers 
of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, and in the preparation of teachers of 
agricultural, trade, industrial and home economics subjects * * * which sums shall 

be expended as hereinafter provided.” (Sec. 1.) 

Note. —References in footnotes are to sections of the Smith-Hughes Act. 

12 








FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


13 


II. SPECIFIC DESIGNATION OF CUSTODIAN BY STATE LEGISLATURE. 

It will be noted that the vocational education act does not prescribe 
that a State treasurer shall, after the passage of the act, be appointed 
as custodian of Smith-Hughes funds. In enacting this provision it 
is evident that it was the intent of Congress 1 that in every State the 
State treasurer must be empowered and obligated to receive and dis¬ 
burse the Federal moneys allotted to the State. A general State statute 
imposing upon the State treasurer the duty of receiving and account¬ 
ing for all moneys received by the State, even if passed before the 
enactment of the Smith-IIughes Act, will therefore, as a general 
proposition, in the opinion of the board, comply with the intent of 
Congress in this respect. To hold otherwise would require that the 
State legislature merely enact in a different form a provision of law 
already appearing in the State statutes. In cases, therefore, where 
the State treasurer is designated by a general statute as custodian of 
all State funds coming into the custody of the State the Federal board 
will not require a special enactment. 

III. ACCEPTANCE OF THE ACT BY A GOVERNOR. 

In the absence of evidence to the contrary the acceptance by the 
governor of the provisions of the act should be deemed to be an ac¬ 
ceptance of all the funds . 2 

IV. PRINCIPLES UPON WHICH FEDERAL MONEYS ARE DISTRIBUTED. 

The Federal board believes that the following fundamental princi¬ 
ples should govern the appropriations from the National Govern¬ 
ment to the States for vocational education. The money is designed: 

(1) To stimulate 3 the States to undertake a new and needed form of service— 
that for vocational education—which the National Government believes neces¬ 
sary to the public welfare. 


1 “ That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriations for the salaries of teach¬ 
ers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or for the salaries of teachers of 
trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, or for the training of teachers as herein 
provided, any State shall, through the legislative authority thereof, appoint as custodian 
for said appropriations its State treasurer, who shall receive and provide for the proper 
custody and disbursements of all money paid to the State from said appropriations.” 
(Sec. 13.) 

2 “* * * In any State the legislature of which met in 1917 and failed for any 

reason to accept the provisions of the vocational education act, as provided in section 5 
of said act, if the governor of that State, so far as he is authorized to do so, shall accept 
the provisions of said act and designate or create a State board of not less than three 
members to act in cooperation with the Federal Board for Vocational Education and 
shall designate the State treasurer as custodian for all moneys allotted to that State 
under said act, the Federal board shall, if such legislature took no adverse action on the 
acceptance of said act in 1917, recognize such State board for the purposes of said act 
until the legislature of that State meets in regular session in due course and lias been 
in session CO days.” (Public, No. 64, 65th Cong.) 

3 ‘‘An act to provide for the promotion of vocational education to provide for co¬ 
operation with the States in the promotion of such education in agriculture and the 
trades and industries; to provide for cooperation with the States in the preparation of 
teachers of vocational subjects; and to appropriate money and regulate its expendi¬ 
tures.” (Title of act.) 



14 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


(2) To equalize, in part at least, the inequalities of burden among the States 
in carrying on this .service. 

(3) To purchase for the National Government a reasonable degree of par¬ 
ticipation in the carrying on of this work in which the National Government is 
so deeply concerned. 

(4) To establish standards of efficiency in vocational education and to set up 
minimums below which work in vocational education for which reimbursement 
from Federal moneys is desired can not be allowed to fall. 

Two questions must always be met in determining whether a State 
is entitled to share in the distribution of Federal funds— 

(1) Is the plan 1 proposed by the State one which the Federal Gov¬ 
ernment is willing to accept? 

(2) Will, or can, the State properly carry out 2 the plan after the 
agreement is made? 

V. CONDITIONS UPON WHICH FEDERAL MONEY IS GRANTED 

The grant is for payment in part of salaries of teachers, supervisors, 
and directors of agricultural subjects; for payment in part of salaries 
of teachers of trade, home economics, or industrial subjects; and for 
payment toward the maintenance of the training of teachers in all 
these subjects. The grant is made in accordance with the terms of 
a definite plan proposed by the State and approved by the Federal 
board. No money belongs to any State as of right. A State is en¬ 
titled to receive Federal aid only when it has conformed to the act and 
has had its plan approved. No money belongs to any local com¬ 
munity or to any institution as of right. Communities and institu¬ 
tions are entitled to money only as they show themselves able and 
ready to meet the requirements of the State board for vocational edu¬ 
cation. 3 


1 “ That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriation for any purpose specified 

in this act, the State board shall prepare plans showing the kinds of vocational educa¬ 
tion for which it is proposed that the appropriation shall be used * * * such plans 

shall be submitted by the State board to the Federal Board for Vocational Education, 
and if the Federal board finds the same to be in conformity with the provisions and 
purposes of this act, the same shall be approved.” (Sec. 8.) 

2 “ That the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall annually ascertain whether 
the several States are using, or are prepared to use, the money received by them in 
accordance with the provisions of this act.” (Sec. 14.) 

3 “ That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriation for any purpose specified 
in this act, the State board shall prepare plans showing the kinds of vocational educa¬ 
tion for which it is proposed that the appropriation shall be used ; the kinds of schools 
and equipment; courses of study; methods of instruction ; qualifications of teachers; 
and, in the case of agricultural subjects, the qualifications of supervisors or directors ; 
plans for the training of teachers ; and, in the case of agricultural subjects, plans for the 
supervision of agricultural education, as provided for in section 10. Such plans shall be 
submitted by the State board to the Federal Board for Vocational Education, and if the 
Federal board finds the same to be in conformity with the provisions and purposes of 
this act the same shall be approved. The State board shall make an annual report to 
the Federal Board for Vocational Education, on or before September 1 of each year, on 
the work done in the State and the receipts and expenditures of money under the provi¬ 
sions of this act.” (Sec. 8.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


15 


VI. IMPORTANCE OF AN EFFICIENT USE OF FUNDS. 

Wherever Federal money is used the State board should make 
certain that it reimburses only for efficient work. 1 For example, 
should money be widely distributed in small amounts to a large 
number of schools, the difficulties of meeting in those schools the 
standards agreed upon with the Federal board will be much in¬ 
creased. Hence a sufficient sum should be allotted to a school to 
enable it to do effective vocational work The Federal board be¬ 
lieves that State boards should exercise great discretion in selecting 
the schools which are to share in the funds and in determining, the 
amounts to be allotted to each. 

VII. METHOD OF REIMBURSEMENT. 2 

After a careful study of the plans submitted by the States, the 
Federal board w T ill decide in each case whether preliminary approval 
may be given. If approval is given, the board will certify to the 
Secretary of the Treasury that the State has complied with the pro¬ 
visions of the Smith-Hughes Act for the current fiscal year. This 
will insure to States whose plans have thus been approved the first 
quarterly installment at an early date. As soon as practicable, the 
Federal board will assure itself further that the several States thus 

1 “ That the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall annually ascertain whether 
the several States are using, or are prepared to use, the money received by them in 
accordance with the provisions of this act.” (Sec. 14.) 

“ That whenever any portion of the fund annually allotted to any State has not been 
expended for the purpose provided for in this act, a sum equal to such portion shall be 
deducted by the Federal board from the next succeeding annual allotment from such 
fund to such State.” (Sec. 15.) 

“ That the Federal Board for Vocational Education may withhold the allotment of 
moneys to any State whenever it shall be determined that such moneys are not being 
expended for the purposes and under the conditions of this act. If any allotment is 
withheld from any State, the State board of such State may appeal to the Congress of 
the United States, and if the Congress shall not direct such sum to be paid it shall be 
covered into the Treasury.” (Sec. 16.) 

“ That if any portion of the moneys received by the custodian for vocational educa¬ 
tion of any State under this act, for any given purpose named in this act, shall by any 
action or contingency be diminished or lost, it shall be replaced by such State, and until 
so replaced no subsequent appropriation for such education shall be paid to such State. 
No portion of any moneys appropriated under this act for the benefit of the States shall 
be applied, directly or indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair of any 
building or buildings, or equipment, or for the purchase or rental of lands, or for the 
support of any religious or privately owned or conducted school or college.” (Sec. 17.) 

2 “ On or before the 1st day of January of each year the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education shall certify to the Secretary of the Treasury each State which has accepted 
the provisions of this act and complied therewith, certifying the amounts which each 
State is entitled to receive under the provisions of this act. Upon such certification the 
Secretary of the Treasury shall pay quarterly to the custodian for vocational education 
of each State the moneys to which it is entitled under the provisions of this act. The 
moneys so received by the custodian for vocational education for any State shall be 
paid out on the requisition of the State board as reimbursement for expenditures already 
incurred to such schools as are approved by said State board and are entitled to receive 
such moneys under the provisions of this act.” (Sec. 14.) 



16 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


certified are using the Federal funds in accordance with the terms 
of the act. Should such inquiry disclose that this is not being done, 
the right is reserved to exercise the power conferred in section 16 1 
to withhold further grants. 

VIII. QUESTIONS TO BE ASKED CONCERNING INSTITUTIONS USING FEDERAL 

FUNDS. 

In the matter of institutions using Federal moneys, the Federal 
board is concerned with three things— 

(&) Whether the institution is legally qualified under the act. 2 

( b ) Whether supervision and inspection by the State board for 
vocational education is properly maintained. 3 

( c ) Whether the courses are carried on in conformity with the 
plan as agreed upon between the Federal and State boards. 4 

IX. ABSOLUTE STANDARDS. 

The Federal board must administer the Smith-Hughes Act in exact 
conformity with its terms. No choice can be made or discretion 
exercised in dealing with mandatory provisions. For example, the 
board is charged with seeing that the States provide for at least six 
months of directed or supervised practice in agriculture 5 and that 
the States provide instruction in the trades and industries for the 
persons who have not entered upon employment extending over not 

1 “ That the Federal Board for Vocational Education may withhold the allotment 
of moneys to any Slate whenever it shall be determined that such moneys are not being 
expended for the purposes and under the conditions of this act. If any allotment is 
withheld from any State, the State board of such State may appeal to the Congress of 
the United States, and if the Congress shall not direct such sum to be paid it shall be 
covered into the Treasury.” (Sec. 16.) 

2 “ No portion of any moneys appropriated under this act for the benefit of the States 
shall be applied, directly or indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair 
of any building or buildings or equipment, or for the purchase or rental of lands, or for 
the support of any religious or privately owned or conducted school or college.” 
(Sec. 17.) 

“ * * * That such education shall be that which is under public supervision or 

control * * *.” (Sec. 10.) Sections 11 and 12 contain similar provisions. 

3 “ That any State may use the appropriation for agricultural purposes, or any part 
thereof allotted to it, under the provisions of this act, for the salaries of teachers, super¬ 
visors, or directors of agricultural subjects, either for the salaries of teachers of such 
subjects in schools or classes or for the salaries of supervisors or directors of such sub¬ 
jects under a plan of supervision for the State to be set up by the State board, with the 
approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education.” (Sec. 10.) See sec. 8. 

“ * * * the State board of such State shall provide in its plan for such training 

that the same shall be carried out under the supervision of the State board * * 

(Sec. 12.) 

4 “ That the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall annually ascertain whether 
the several States are using, or are prepared to use, the money received by them in 
accordance with the provisions of this act.” (Sec. 14.) 

5 “ * * * that such schools shall provide for directed or supervised practice in 

agriculture, either on a farm provided for by the school or other farm, for at least six 
months per year.” (Sec. 10.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


17 


less than 9 months per year and for not less than 30 hours per week. 1 
Modification of such provisions is impossible. 


X. DISCRETIONARY STANDARDS. 


Concerning provisions where discretion and interpretation are 
allowed, the Federal board reserves the right to judge the arrange¬ 
ment made with each State in the light of local conditions, keeping 
in mind the fact that the standards in every State must be progres¬ 
sive and that no standard can be permitted to fall below a reasonable 
minimum of efficiency. 

XI. PERSONS FOR WHOM VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IS INTENDED. 

The Federal board desires to emphasize the fact that vocational 
schools and classes are not fostered under the Smith-Hughes Act 
for the purpose of giving instruction to the backward, deficient, in¬ 
corrigible, or otherwise subnormal individuals; but that such schools 
and classes are to be established and maintained for the clearly 
avowed purpose of giving thorough vocational instruction to healthy, 
normal individuals to the end that they may be prepared for profitable 
and efficient employment. 2 Such education should command the best 
efforts of normal boys and girls. 

XII. NATURE OF THE COOPERATIVE AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE FEDERAL 

GOVERNMENT AND A STATE. 

The cooperative agreement between the Federal Government and 
the State is a cooperative agreement with a State and not with all 
States. It is proposed by a State board for vocational education for a 
State and is approved by the Federal board for that State only. It 
would be impossible to set up a single uniform plan for this widely 
diversified country with its differing social, economic, and industrial 
conditions. In its administrative discretion the Federal board must 
decide what arrangement it is willing to enter into with each State 
as a unit. It should be emphasized that the plan for cooperation is in 

1 “ * * * . that such schools or classes giving instruction to persons who have not 

entered upon employment shall require that at least half of the time of such instruction 
be given to practical work on a useful or productive basis, such instruction to extend 
over not less than nine months per year and not less than thirty hours per week * * 

(Sec. 11.) 

2 “ * * * that the controlling purpose of such education shall be to fit for useful 

employment; that such education shall be of less than college grade and be designed to 
meet the needs of persons over 14 years of age who have entered upon or who are pre¬ 
paring to enter upon the work of the farm or of the farm home. * * (Sec. 10.) 

“ ♦ * * that the controlling purpose of such education shall be to fit for useful 
employment; that such education shall be of less than college grade and shall be de¬ 
signed to meet the needs of persons over 14 years of age who are preparing for a trade 
or industrial pursuit or who have entered upon the work of a trade or industrial pur¬ 
suit * * (Sec. 11.) 




18 FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

every case offered by the State board and passed upon by the Federal 
board. 

XIII. TIIE FEDERAL BOARD WILL DEAL WITH STATE BOARD ONLY. 

All official dealings must be between the Federal Board for Voca¬ 
tional Education or its representatives and the State boards for voca¬ 
tional education. Agents of the Federal board will deal with the 
State board or its recognized agents only, not with individual schools 
and institutions. The Federal board and its agents reserve the right, 
of course, to inspect from time to time such schools and institutions 
in order to determine whether or not the State is carrying out prop¬ 
erly the plan agreed upon. This decision does not preclude the giv¬ 
ing of advice to schools by the Federal board or its agents at the re¬ 
quest of the State board or its agents. 

All communications of an official character between the Federal 
board and the State boards and their agents must be in writing in 
order that there may be a proper record of everything agreed to. 

XIV. AGREEMENT IS FOR ONE YEAR ONLY. 

It is highly desirable that the States propose plans for using the 
Federal money for one fiscal year only. In this way they will be able 
from year to year to improve their plans and standards so as to con¬ 
form to the development of the work and to conditions in the States 
and communities. 

XV. HELPS TO THE STATES FROM STUDIES AND INVESTIGATIONS. 

In accordance with the provisions of section 6 1 of the act, the Fed¬ 
eral board will aid the States through studies made in the research 
department of the board in establishing vocational education and in 
giving instruction in vocational subjects. It will from time to time 
issue bulletins, circulars, and announcements dealing with the various 
phases of studies carried on in its research department and by mem¬ 
bers of its staff. It will also answer, whenever possible, specific in¬ 
quiries made by State boards, and will welcome suggestions as to 
studies and investigations beneficial to the several States. 

1 “ It shall be the duty of the Federal Board for Vocational Education to make, or cause 
to have made, studies, investigations, and reports, with particular reference to their use 
in aiding the States in the establishment of vocational schools and classes and in giving 
instruction in agriculture, trades and industries, commerce and commercial pursuits, and 
home economics. Such studies, investigations, and reports shall include agriculture and 
agricultural processes and requirements upon agricultural workers; trades, industries, 
and apprenticeships, trade and industrial requirements upon industrial workers, and 
classification of industrial processes and pursuits; commerce and commercial pursuits 
and requirements upon commercial workers, home management, domestic science, and 
the study of related facts and principles; and problems of administration of vocational 
schools and of courses of study and instruction in vocational subjects.” (Sec. 6.) 




FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


19 


XVI. SUPERVISION OF THE WORK WITHIN THE STATES. 

1 rained teachers and trained supervisors are absolutely indispen¬ 
sable in effective vocational education, particularly at the present 
time. The board therefore urges State boards to provide for super¬ 
vision and inspection and to make such supervision as extensive as 
possible. Only in this way can schools get the help they should have 
at the time they need it most—when the work in the State is beginning. 
Furthermore, in this way only can the State board be certain that 
schools are complying with the terms of the plan proposed by the 
State board and approved by the Federal board. 1 If the schools in a 
State do not live up to the terms of that agreement, funds may be 
withheld. 2 


XVII. STANDARDS FOR PLANT AND EQUIPMENT. 

It will not be possible at the present time to establish in most of 
the States absolute, or quantitative, standards with regard to mini¬ 
mum plant and equipment and with regard to the minimum amount 
to be expended for maintenance. 3 While the right to establish such 
standards rests with State boards, the standards themselves must 
have the approval of the Federal board. For the present the Fed¬ 
eral board will hold State boards responsible only for determining 
that the plant and equipment in the case of any school or class are 
adequate to carry out the purposes for which the school is estab¬ 
lished, and that the amount expended for maintenance is sufficient 
to insure reasonable standards of work and to secure teachers pre¬ 
pared properly to do that work. 

XVIII. UTILIZATION OF PRIVATELY OWNED EQUIPMENT. 

The general limitation contained in the statute in regard to plant 
and equipment is contained in section 17. 4 This section declares 
that no portion of any moneys appropriated under the act for the 
benefit of States shall be applied directly or indirectly to the pur¬ 
chase, erection, preservation, or repair of any building or buildings, 
or equipment, or for the purchase or rental of lands, or for the 


1 “ * * * The State board shall prepare plans showing * * * In the case of 

agricultural subjects plans for the supervision of agricultural education.” (Sec. 8.) 

2 See secs. 15, 16, 17, supra, p. —. 

s “ * * * That the State or local community, or both, shall provide the necessary 

plant and equipment determined upon by the State board, with the approval of the 
Federal Board for Vocational Education, as the minimum requirement for such education 
in schools and classes in the State * * (Sec. 10.) Section 11 contains an identi¬ 

cal provision. 

o‘* * * No portion of any moneys appropriated under this act for the benefit of 

the States shall be applied directly or indirectly to the purchase, erection, preservation, 
or repair of any building or buildings or equipment, or for the purchase or rental of 
lands, or for the support of any religious or privately owned or conducted school or 
college.” (Sec. 17.) 



20 FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

support of any religious, or privately owned or conducted school or 
college. If, therefore, the entire cost incident to utilizing the labora¬ 
tories, etc., of the institutions referred to is borne by the State and 
consequently no portion of any Federal funds will be used either 
directly or indirectly in connection therewith, there will be no objec¬ 
tion to State boards using plants and equipment of the character in¬ 
dicated. 


Part II. 

QUESTIONS INVOLVING POLICY ANSWERED BY THE FEDERAL BOARD 
FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

Preliminary to passing on the plans of the States, certain ques¬ 
tions of principle and policy had to be decided by the Federal board. 
Most of these questions were raised at the hearings given to the State 
boards of control held at Washington, D. C., August 17-29. These 
questions, with tentative answers, are here arranged under four heads: 

(1) Questions of a general nature. 

(2) Questions relating to agricultural education. 

(3) Questions relating to industrial education. 

(4) Questions relating to home-economics education. 

The Federal board has reserved the right to modify these prin¬ 
ciples and policies from time to time in the light of further ex¬ 
perience. 

SECTION I. QUESTIONS OF A GENERAL NATURE. 

I. What is to he the policy of the Federal hoard regarding the 
■financial statements of State hoards in States operating on a fiscal 
year other than that beginning July 1 and ending June 30? 

Answer. The Federal board recognizes the difficulties involved. 
It will be necessary, however, for every feature of the administration 
of the Smith-Hughes Act, whether between the Federal board and 
the State board or the State board and local boards, to be trans¬ 
acted on the basis of the Government’s fiscal year, i. e., beginning July 
1 and ending June 30. 1 This applies to all such matters as allotments, 
reimbursements, approval of work, reports, school statistics, and 
financial statements. 

II. What is the nature of the annual report to he furnished hy 
State hoards under section 8? 

(A) Answer as to financial report showing use of money: 

1. The Federal board will send to the States as soon as possible 
after October 1 blanks for the financial report to be made by the 


1 “ The State board shall make an annual report to the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education, on or before September 1 of each year, on the work done in the State and 
the receipts and expenditures of money under the provisions of this act.” (Sec. 8.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


21 


State boards at the close of the fiscal year, in order that the latter 
may adjust their accounts accordingly. 

2. These blanks, when filled, should set forth the facts which the 
Federal board must know to discharge its responsibility. 

3. There should be a different form for each type of school— 
agricultural, home economics, industrial, teacher-training—and there 
should be a summary. 

4. These blanks will be designed to uncover as far as possible 
suspected difficulties, such as the source of money used to match the 
Federal dollar, the method of disbursement, to whom moneys are 
paid, and for what purpose. 

5. The blanks will provide for the making of sworn statements. 

6. They will require the showing of totals and the listing of 
Federal, State, and local moneys separately. 

7. The Federal board will also supply the States with blanks which 
it believes will be helpful in securing from schools and institutions 
receiving Federal moneys, material essential to the report required 
by the Federal board, the State boards will, of course, use these 
blanks or not, as they may desire; but for the sake of uniformity it is 
hoped that they will avail themselves of them. 

(B) Answer as to report giving information concerning work 
of schools: 

1. A separate report will be required, on blanks provided by the 
Federal board, concerning each type of school. 

2. This report will be in the nature of a summary for the whole 
State regarding schools which receive Federal moneys. 

3. Should the Federal board approve the use of Federal moneys 
to pay in part the- cost of supervising agricultural schools of the 
grade of those benefitted by the act, but not using Federal moneys, 
the State should make a separate report on the supervision of such 
schools. 

4. The following points at least should be covered in the statistical 
report on the approved schools: 

(a) Total number of hours the school was in session. 

(Z>) Proportion of time given to vocational subjects, including 
vocational work. 

( c ) Total enrollment. 

(d) Total days of attendance. 

( e ) Per cent of daily attendance (divided d by c). 

5. These points should be covered on a separate blank for each 
type of school. 

6. The blanks should be so drawn that the items and the summary 
of all items check. 

III. Does the Federal hoard have the right to require reports of 
such a hind as it desires from the States, these reports to he used as a 


22 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


basis for the annual allotment of funds and as a review of the ex - 
penditures? 

Answer. As sections 14, 1 15, 2 16, 3 and 17 4 of the act places upon tho 
board the duty of reviewing carefully the disbursements by the State 
boards of the moneys received by them, these sections impliedly au¬ 
thorize it to require such reports as may be deemed necessary to 
enable it to discharge this duty. The board will accordingly, from 
time to time, request such financial reports from the State boards as 
in its judgment may be proper. 

IY. How does the Federal board propose to discharge its responsi¬ 
bility of ascertaining annually whether the States are using the 
national money in accordance with the terms of the act ? 5 

Answer. In these ways— 

(a) By a study of the annual report of the State board with its 
financial and statistical information. 

(b) By requiring an annual report from the officers or agents of 
the State board. This report should show, in descriptive as well as 
tabular form, the activities of the State board and of the schools in 
the State concerned with this act. 

( c ) Bjr securing copies of all rules and regulations, as well as of 
all decisions promulgated by the State board establishing precedents 
in the use of Federal funds. 

(d) By a special report from the State board on the certification of 
teachers showing— 

1. Kinds of certificates. 

2. Number issued. 

3. Training and experience required for each certificate. 

4. Licensing power of certificates. 

5. Nature and scope of qualifying examination. 

(e) From special reports of its agents concerning work inspected 
by them in the States. 


1 “ That the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall annually ascertain whether 

the several States are using, or ax-e prepared to use, the money received by them in 
accordance with the pi’ovisions of this act * * (Sec. 14.) 

2 “ That whenever any portion of the fund annually allotted to any State has not been 

expended for the purpose provided for in this act, a sum equal to such portion shall be 
deducted by the Federal board from the next succeeding annual allotment from such 
fund to such State * * (Sec. 15.) 

3 “ That the Federal Boai'd for Vocational Education may withhold the allotment of 

moneys to any State whenever it shall be determined that such moneys are not being 
expended for the purposes and under the conditions of this act * * *.” (Sec. 1G.) 

4 “ That if any portion of the moneys received by the custodian for vocational educa¬ 

tion of any State under this act for any given purpose named in this act, shall, by any 
action or contingency, be diminished or lost, it shall be replaced by such State, and 
until so replaced no subsequent appropriation for such education shall be paid to such 
State *' * *.” (Sec. 17.) 

5 “ That the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall annually ascertain -whether 
the several States are using, or are prepared to use, the money received by them in 
accordance with the provisions of this act.” (Sec. 14.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


23 


(/) B y examining the published reports and catalogues of schools 
and classes receiving Federal money. 

Y. How does the board propose to ascertain annually , as required 
by the act? whether the States are prepared properly to use the 
Federal money from any given fund? 

Answer. In these ways— 

(a) Through the information referred to in the answer to ques¬ 
tion iy. 

(&) By weighing, at the close of any fiscal year, the State plan for 
the ensuing year in the light of the work done during the year just 
passed. 

(c) By the statistical and financial reports named in the answer to 
question IV. 

(d) By (1) the character and success of any previous effort to use 
Federal money in connection with surveys, conferences, or inspec¬ 
tions; (2) investigations and reports of Federal agents; (3) bulletins, 
cooperative activities, and efforts for promotion by State supervisors 
or other State or local agencies, public or private; and (4) by all 
other activities and efforts which indicate what has been done in the 
State and with what success. 

VI. Will the failure of the State to qualify fully at some time 
during the year deprive it of the use of all the funds for the period • 
elapsing from the 1st day of July of that year to the date of quali¬ 
fication? 

Answer. Certification by the board is the determining factor as to 
when payments to the State shall begin. Therefore, when a State 
has been certified, it is entitled to its full allotment, payable quarterly, 
irrespective of the date of its qualification. The law requires that 
certification shall be made on or before January 1 of the current 
year. 1 2 If certification is made prior to October 1, the first quarterly 
allotment will be made at the expiration of the first quarter. If 
certification is made after October 1, the first quarterly payment is 
immediately payable. 

VII. What is the policy of the board with regard to mixed classes , 
some of the pupils of which are under ij, but are competent to do 
work designed for those who are H? 


1 See. 14, supra, p. 22. 

a “ * * * On or before the 1st day of January of each year the Federal Board for 

Vocational Education shall certify to the Secretary of the Treasury each State which has 
accepted the provisions of this act and complied therewith, certifying the amounts which 
each State is entitled to receive under the provisions of this act. Upon such certification 
the Secretary of the Treasury shall pay quarterly to the custodian for vocational educa¬ 
tion of each State the moneys to which it is entitled under the provisions of this act. 
The moneys so received by the custodian for vocational education for any State shall be 
paid out on the requisition of the State board as reimbursement for expenditures already 
incurred to such schools as are approved by said State board and are entitled to receive 
such moneys under the provisions of this act * * (Sec. 14.) 



24 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


Answer. Pupils under 14 can not be admitted, unless it can be 
clearly shown that they are fully able from the point of view of 
physical fitness and mental attainments to carry on the work de¬ 
signed for pupils over 14. 1 

VIII. What is the policy of the board concerning payment to a 
teacher who conducts some classes composed of pupils under H and 
some classes composed of pupils over 11 years of age f 

Answer. No class composed of pupils under 14 years of age is en¬ 
titled to Federal moneys, and except as stated under question VII 
no pupil under 14 should be admitted to a class receiving aid under 
the Smith-Hughes Act. 

A further question is that of prorating the salary of a teacher be¬ 
tween the time given to vocational and non vocational subjects. 
Wherever possible teachers paid in part from Federal moneys should 
give their entire time to approval vocational classes, and the pro¬ 
rating of the time and salary of a teacher as between vocational and 
nonvocational subjects should be discouraged. In small rural schools, 
however, such practice will probably always be necessary. 

Prorating as between vocational and nonvocational classes of the 
vocational school must be safeguarded by some such provisions as 
the following: 

1. Prorating should be based on the whole school day rather than 
on the number of hours given to each of the two different kinds of 
work. For example, if in a school with a day of eight periods in 
length a teacher teaches vocational subjects three periods and non¬ 
vocational subjects four periods, the part of the teacher’s time given 
to vocational work would be considered as three-eighths rather than 
as three-sevenths. 

2. No modification of standards shall be made to secure or hold 
a teacher thus used. The strength of a teacher on the nonvocational 
side of teaching will not in any way make up for lack of training or 
experience on the vocational side. 

3. All such arrangements should be approved by the State board 
in advance of, or as soon as possible after, the approval of the State 
plans and, wherever possible, before the work is inaugurated. 

IX. How far should the Federal board , in safeguarding the use of 
Federal moneys , trace the source of the dollar used to match the 
Federal dollar , in order to avoid illegal mulching with money 


1 “ * * * That such education shall he of less than college grade and designed to 

meet the needs of persons over 14 years of age who have entered upon or who are pre¬ 
paring to enter upon the work of the farm or the farm home * * (Sec. 10.) 

Section 11 contains a similar provision. 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


25 


from any other source than the public funds of the State or local 
community ? 1 

Answer. The act absolutely requires the State or local community, 
or both, to meet the use of a Federal dollar with the expenditure 
of another dollar for the same purpose. Both the Federal board 
and the State board must be certain that this requirement is violated 
neither in letter nor in spirit. This safeguard was placed in the 
act to prevent the use of Federal moneys, directly or indirectly, for 
instruction maintained, directly or indirectly, by private funds. A 
main purpose of the act is to stimulate the State and local com¬ 
munities to support vocational education in a larger degree by public 
taxation. 

The State board should require all local boards when making fiscal 
reports and claiming reimbursement from Federal funds, to make 
a clear statement regarding the origin of funds used. The Federal 
board will do likewise with each State board. 

Public control means control in the hands of an officer or board 
selected by the people or appointed by another officer or board so 
selected. 2 

X. Does the Smith-TIughcs Act require that when one-half the 
salary of a supervisor or teacher , for example , is paid out of Fed¬ 
eral moneys it must be matched by a similar amount paid toward 
the salary of the same individual teacher; or may the Federal money 
go to pay one-half the salaries of a group of teachers engaged in 
approved and standardized work, thus losing sight of the indi¬ 
vidual? 

Answer. The statute requires 3 that the State or local community 
shall in every case match the Federal money by an equal amount. 

1 “ The moneys expended under the provisions of this net in cooperation with the States 
for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or for the 
salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects shall be conditioned 
that for each dollar of Federal money expended for such salaries the State or local 
community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for such salaries ; and that appro¬ 
priations for the training of teachers of vocational subjects, as herein provided, shall be 
conditioned that such money he expended for maintenance of such training and that 
for each dollar of Federal money so expended for maintenance, the State or local com¬ 
munity, or both, shall expend an equal amount for the maintenance of such training.” 
(Sec. 9.) 

2 “ * * * That in order to receive the benefits of such appropriations for the salaries 

of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects the State board of any 
State shall provide in its plan for agricultural education that such education shall be 
that which is under public supervision or control * * (Sec. 10.) Sections 11 

and 12 contain similar provisions. 

3<< * * * The money's expended under the provisions of this act, in cooperation 
with the States, for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural 
subjects, or for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial sub¬ 
jects, shall be conditioned that for each dollar of Federal money expended for such 
salaries the State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for such 
salaries; and that, appropriations for the training of teachers of vocational subjects, 
as herein provided, shall be conditioned that such money be expended for maintenance of 
such training and that for each dollar of Federal money so expended for maintenance, 
the State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for the maintenance 
of such training.” (Sec. 9.) 

24441°—17—Bull. 1- 


4 




26 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


Nothing in the act requires that an individual teacher shall be paid 
partly by Federal and partly by State money. Since the Federal 
money is to be used to reimburse schools for salaries already paid, 
the individual teacher will receive only State moneys, while the 
Federal moneys will be paid to the schools for reimbursement of so 
much of the moneys paid to the teachers as the act provides may be 
paid from Federal funds. 

XI. May an institution use Federal moneys both for teacher¬ 
training and for the salaries of teachers of vocational subjects in the 
same line? For example, may an institution train teachers of home 
economics and , at the same time , operate a secondary school or class 
in home economics? 

Answer. Yes; subject to what follows: 

(a) All instruction for teacher-training classes should be divorced 
from classes of secondary grade using Federal funds, and a separate 
accounting should be required for each. The classes, courses of study, 
and organization must be distinct. 

(b) No school can claim money for the support of any class from 
both the teacher-training fund and the corresponding fund for the 
salaries of teachers. 

( c ) Where the dominant purpose of such a class is in doubt the 
authorities of the school must define it as one thing or the other, and 
reimbursement must be made accordingly. 

(d) Where an institution asks Federal aid for a class the de¬ 
clared aim of which is to fit for useful employment 1 for a productive 
vocation, but the real purpose of which, for example, is to prepare 
teachers for rural schools, Federal moneys, under the Smith-Hughes 
Act, should not be given. 

XII. What is meant by the expression u not less than 20 per cent 
shall be expended for any one of the following purposes ,” as con¬ 
tained in section 12 of the statute ? 2 

Answer. The appropriation for the preparation of teachers is to 
be used for the training of teachers in the subjects of agriculture, 
trades and industries, and home economics. In order that some of 
the appropriation may be expended for the fitting of teachers in all 
three subjects, the restriction is made that not more than 60 per cent 
nor less than 20 per cent shall be applied to the training of any one 
of the three classes of teachers. It is believed by the board that 

1 See secs. 10 and 11, note, p. —, supra. 

2 “ * * * That not more than 60 per centum nor less than 20 per centum of the 

money appropriated under the act for the training of teachers of vocational subjects to 
any State for any year shall be expended for any one of the following purposes : For the 
preparation of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or the prepara¬ 
tion of teachers of trade and industrial subjects, or the preparation of teachers of home 
economics subjects.” (Se$. 12.) 




FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


27 


this means that an agricultural State, for example, may spend 60 per 
cent of the money for the training of teachers of agriculture, 20 per 
cent for trade and industry teachers, and 20 per cent for home 
economics teachers. 

XIII. Where one and the same person supervises the work of the 
State and conducts teacher-training work , how may the board satisfy 
itself that money expended for travel was used in connection with 
teacher-training rather than with supervision? 

Answer. Where money is being used for such dual task, traveling 
expense ought to be paid only when it can be clearly shown that each 
trip was exclusively connected with teacher-training work. This 
rule, however, should not be pressed as to prevent the supervision of 
work on a trip primarily undertaken for teacher-training work, 
when no extra expense is involved. 

XIV. How may the control of the State board over a supervisor 
loaned by an institution be safeguarded? Does the Federal board 
favor such an arrangement? 

Answer. While the board is strongly of the opinion that State 
supervisors should not only be controlled, but paid, directly by the 
State board, it recognizes that in some States funds are not yet avail¬ 
able for use in this way. In such cases, the State board must avail 
itself of the generosity of State institutions, boards, or departments. 

As a permanent arrangement it would be bad policy to use em¬ 
ployees of other institutions, boards, or departments, as supervisors, 
and if resorted to temporarily, should be discontinued as soon as the 
State board has the funds necessary for the supervision of Federal, 
State, and local moneys for vocational training. Such funds should 
be secured at the next session of the State legislature. 

Whether or not Federal moneys are used for the payment in part 
of such supervision, the State board should guard jealously its 
autonomy as a trustee for Federal moneys. It can not even tempo¬ 
rarily surrender or delegate the control and supervision of the use of 
this money to any other agency. 

When such an arrangement is made for the school year 1917-18 the 
Federal board will advise that— 

(a) A formal transfer of the supervisor or director be made in 
writing from the institution, board, or department employing him 
to the State board. This should be done whether all or only a part 
of his time is so transferred. 

(b) While engaged in work for the State board he should be 
under the sole direction of the board or its executive officer and 
should report only to them. 

( c ) Wherever possible, his traveling expenses should be paid by 
the State board. If impossible, the institution, board, or department 


28 FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

employing him should grant him a certain amount for travel, so 
that his movements may be directed entirely by the State board. 

(d) Where his salary is paid in part by the State board and in 
part by an institution, board, or department there should be a defi¬ 
nitely agreed upon division of duties and of expenses. . 

XV. May the State boards delegate into the hands of any other 
agency the expenditure or supervision of Federal money under the 
Smith-Hughes Actf 

Answer. It is believed by the board that the well-settled principle 
of law with regard to the delegation of duties applies to State 
boards. This rule, briefly stated, is that in cases in which the proper 
execution of the office requires on the part of a board the exercise 
of judgment and discretion the presumption is that the board was 
chosen because it was deemed fit and competent to exercise that 
judgment and discretion, and unless power to delegate its authority 
has been given it can not delegate its duties to another. The Smith- 
Hughes Act provides that State boards must be vested with all 
necessary power to cooperate with the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education in the administration of the provisions of the Smith- 
Hughes Act. 1 They must accordingly prepare and submit the plans 
required by the statute; 2 make an annual report on the work done in 
the States represented by them; 3 approve schools in which appropria¬ 
tions are to be expended; 4 supervise the training of teachers, 5 & etc. 
As the proper performance of all these duties involves the exercis e 
of judgment and discretion it is believed by the Federal board th at 


1 “ That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriations provided for in sections 
2, 3, and 4 of this act, any State shall, through the legislative authority thereof, accept 
the provisions of this act, and designate or create a State board, consisting of not less 
than three members, and having all necessary power to cooperate, as herein provided, 
with the Federal Board for Vocational Education in the administration of the provisions 
of this act.” (Sec. 5.) 

2 “ That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriation for any purpose specified 

in this act, the State board shall prepare plans, showing the kinds of vocational educa¬ 
tion for which it is proposed that the appropriation shall be used ; the kinds of schools 
and equipment; courses of study; methods of instruction ; qualifications of teachers; 
and, in the case of agricultural subjects, the qualifications of supervisors or directors ; 
plans for the training of teachers ; and, in the case of agricultural subjects, plans for 
the supervision of agricultural education as provided for in section 10 * * 

(Sec. 8.) 

3 “* * * The g{- a t e board shall make an annual report to the Federal Board for 

Vocational Education, on or before September 1 of each year, on the Avork done in the 
State and the receipts and expenditures of money under the provisions of thi;, act.” 
(Sec. 8.) 

* “ * * * The money so received by the custodian for vocational education for 

any State shall be paid out on the requisition of the State board as reimbursement for 
expenditures already incurred to such schools as are approved by said State board and 
are entitled to receive such moneys under the provisions of this act.” (Sec. 14.) 

& “ That in order for any State to receive the benefits of the appropriation in this act 
for the training of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or of 
teachers of trade, industrial or home economics subjects, the State board of such State 
shall provide in its plan for such training that the same shall be carried out under the 
supervision of the State board.” (Sec. 12.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 29 

they must be performed by State boards personally and can not 
be delegated to others. 

XVI. Has the hoard a definite 'policy regarding the expenditure 
of Federal moneys in few or in many schools in a given State? 

Answer. This is a relative question depending upon such con¬ 
ditions in the State as (a) the standards proposed by the State board, 
(h) the number of schools already doing high-grade work, (t?) the 
number of schools approaching such work, (d) the amount of money 
available from the Federal and State funds, etc. 

In general, the Federal board believes that in most of the States 
the best results will be secured by the use of the Federal money in 
few rather than in many schools during the present fiscal year. The 
initial amount is comparatively small and benefits can readily be 
extended as the Federal funds increase. At present most of the 
States need types of approved schools and classes rather than widely 
scattered small amounts of money. If only a few schools are aided 
better standards can be exacted. The experience of States already 
giving State aid to approved vocational schools would indicate that 
such schools conform more readily to sound and reasonable require¬ 
ments if the aid granted be substantial. If the money be dissipated 
among many schools the aid for each becomes so small that it fails 
to improve the work. 

XVII. Is the Federal hoard empowered to refect a State plan be¬ 
cause the Federal money , following a State custom as to requirements 
for State moneys , is given broadcast so that every community gets a 
little? 

Answer. The Federal board is empowered to reject any plan not 
in conformity with the provisions and purposes of the act. 1 If the 
plans submitted, therefore, show that it is intended to distribute the 
funds so widely that the promotion of vocational education will not 
result, such plans will be disapproved. 

XVIII. What is the attitude of the hoard toward the use of Federal 
funds for work already established in the State rather than for new 
undertakings? 

Answer. In the opinion of the board, it is not the intent of the 
act that Federal funds be used in place of State funds already pro¬ 
vided to aid the work of local communities. On the contrary, the 


i.« * * * That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriation for any purpose 

specified in this act, the State board shall prepare plans showing the kinds of vocational 
education for which it is proposed that the appropriation shall be used; the kinds of 
schools and equipment; courses of study; methods of instruction; qualifications of 
teachers; and, in the case of agricultural subjects, the qualifications of supervisors or 
directors ; plans for the training of teachers ; and, in the case of agricultural subjects, 
plans for the supervision of agricultural education, as provided for in section 10. Such 
plans shall be submitted by the State board to the Federal Board for Vocational Educa¬ 
tion, and if the Federal board finds the same to be in conformity with the provisions 
and purposes of this act, the same shall be approved * * (Sec. 8.) 



30 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


intent is to aid a State, at its present point of development in voca¬ 
tional education, in promoting and establishing new work. 

No use of the Federal moneys should be made which will result 
in a diminution of the amount of funds already devoted, in a State, 
to vocational education. Kather should the allotment of Federal 
funds stimulate the State and local communities to provide more 
generously for the same purposes out of public funds. 

XIX. Is the board prepared to accept different standards for col¬ 
ored and for white schools? 

Answer. Yes; in States where separate schools and classes are 
maintained for colored youth. The reasons for this are similar to 
those which have led the board to accept, at the present time, differ¬ 
ing standards for different States because of wide variations in 
social, industrial, and economic conditions. 

XX. Will the board approve of the use of Federal moneys for 
instruction in schools and classes designed for the benefit of delin¬ 
quent , dependent , incorrigible , defective , or otherwise subnormal 
youths or adults? 

Answer. No; for the reason that the dominant purpose of the 
Smith-Hughes Act is plainly to promote the national welfare by 
aiding normal citizens to increase their own and the general well¬ 
being through various forms of vocational education. 1 2 

XXI. What is the policy of the board toward the provision in 
section 9 for “ well-rounded courses of study ? m 

Answer. The act requires a specified time to be devoted in day 
schools to practical work. In addition, time sufficient for proper 
teaching must be given to instruction in related or technical subjects 
which are also vocational. The remaining time should be given to 
non vocational subjects “necessary to build well-rounded courses of 
instruction.” 

While not making at this time a definite and final ruling, the board 
points out that the experience in vocational education in agriculture 
and in trades and industries gained by this country during the last 
10 years has* established the following as the prevailing practice: 

(a) In day industrial or trade schools at least one-half the time is 
given to practical work on a useful or productive basis. 

(b) From 30 to 35 per cent of the time in such schools is given to 
related studies, like mathematics, drawing, or science. 

( c) The remainder of the time (15 to 20 per cent) is given such 
subjects as English, civics, hygiene, and history. 

1 See secs. 10 and 11, supra, p. —. 

2 “ * * * The cost of instruction supplementary to the instruction in agricultural 

and in trade, home economics, and industrial subjects provided for in this act, necessary 
to build a well-rounded course of training, shall be borne by the State and local com¬ 
munities, and no part of the cost thereof shall be borne out of the appropriations herein 
made.” (Sec. 9.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


31 


(d) In day agricultural schools one-half the time is given to such 
subjects as agronomy, soil physics, animal husbandry, etc., including 
required, supervised practice in agriculture. 

(e) The remaining half of the time in such schools is given to 
non vocational subjects. 

Because of the wording of section 11. a section intended to estab¬ 
lish certain standards for industrial and trade schools, it has been 
found somewhat difficult for the Federal board to apply these stand¬ 
ards to schools and classes in home economics. 

In order to give as much flexibility therein as possible, the follow¬ 
ing rulings are made: 

1. In the case of home economics when the requirement is that at 
least half the time of the instruction be given to practical work on 
a useful or productive basis, the term practical work shall be in¬ 
terpreted to include the practical work and related subjects in home 
economics, such as garment making, foods and cookery, sanitation 
and home nursing, house planning, and house furnishing. 

The remaining half of the time may be givin to related home 
economics subjects—applied art and applied science—and to non- 
vocational subjects. 

For a fuller statement, and for modifications for cities of under 
25,000 population, 1 see Section IV, Question I. 

XXII. Section 9 2 says that the cost of instruction in agriculture , 
etc., .necessary to build a well-rounded course in training shall be 
borne by the State and local communities , and that no part of the cost 
thereof shall be borne out of the appropriations under the Smith- 
Hughes Act. Does the wording of this section mean that the Federal 
board has no right to standardize any well-rounded course f Is it to 
be the judge of what constitutes such courses f 

Answer. The language employed in the provision in regard to 
well-rounded courses of training contains no intimation as to 
whether it was intended that such courses should be required and 
standardized by the Federal board. The incorporation in the act of 
this provision, however, is strong evidence that it was the intent of 
Congress that such courses could properly be required in some cases. 
The main purpose of the clause is obviously to provide that the cost 
of supplementary instruction shall not be borne out of the appropri- 

1 “ That for cities and towns of less than 25,000 population, according to the last preced¬ 
ing United States census, the State board, with the approval of the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education, may modify the conditions as to the length of course and hours 
of instruction per week for schools and classes giving instruction to those who have not 
entered upon employment in order to meet the particular needs of such cities and towns.” 
(Sec. 11.) 

2 “ The cost of instruction supplementary to the instruction in agricultural and in 
trade, home economics, and in industrial subjects provided for in this act, necessary to 
build a well-rounded course of training, shall be borne by the State and local communi¬ 
ties, and no part of the cost thereof shall be borne out of the appropriations herein 
made.” (Sec. 9.) 



32 FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

ations made by the act. But if it was not intended that such instruc¬ 
tion might be properly included, in certain cases, in the courses of 
study to be given in the schools and classes aided by Federal funds, 
the enactment in regard to the cost of such instruction would be of no 
force and effect. Congress, by providing in section 8 that the plans 
submitted by the State board must be passed by the Federal board, 
clearly vested in the latter authority to refuse to approve such plans 
as did not, in its judgment, contain courses of study necessary to ac¬ 
complish the purposes of the act. It is the duty of the board, there¬ 
fore, to determine, upon the submission to it of plans, the questions 
whether provision for supplementary instruction should be included 
therein. Thus, in proper cases the board reserves the right both to 
require and standardize such courses. 

XXIII. Is selection and placement of teachers a legitimate part of 
the expenditure for maintenance of teacher-training? 

Answer. Yes; but its cost must not be in unreasonable propor¬ 
tions. In the training of teachers of shopwork, where it is difficult 
to get men of experience to prepare for teaching, the cost of selection 
is a legitimate item of expense. Moreover, this work of selection is 
largely a day activity, while that of training shopwork teachers is 
largely an evening class actively carried on in industrial centers 
after working hours. 

XXIV. May the State legislature require a State hoard to designate 
a particular institution as the place for teacher-training , in so far as 
Federal funds are concerned in the maintenance of that teacher- 
training? 

Answer. The State legislature can control the actions of the State 
board and require it to designate any institution it ma}^ deem proper. 
The Federal board is directed to approve plans only in the event 
that such plans conform with the provisions and purposes of the act; 
hence it may refuse to approve plans 1 unless it is satisfied that the 
kinds of schools for which it is proposed that the appropriations of 
the act are to be used are such as were intended to be aided by the 
Federal Government. 

XXY. Assuming that the institution with the highest standards in 
the State has been approved by the State board for teacher-train- 
in the State has been approved by the State board for teacher train¬ 
ing and that the State is able to supply all the qualified teachers 
needed , would the Federal board approve of the use in addition of 
Federal moneys in an institution or institutions of lower grade , in 
the same State , for the training of teachers of the same vocational 
subjects as those for which teachers are trained in the institution of 
higher standards? 


1 See quotation from sec. 8, supra, p. 29. 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 33 

Answer. No; because if enough teachers of superior qualifications 
can be secured, no others should be trained or employed. In deter¬ 
mining whether the approved institution is able to supply all the 
teachers needed three factors must be considered: 

1. The amount of money to be used in the State for the payment 
of salaries of teachers in the vocational subjects concerned. 

2. The number of schools actually in operation which will prob¬ 
ably qualify to receive Federal moneys toward the salaries of voca¬ 
tional teachers. 

3. The facilities for training the number of teachers required and 
the probable registration of prospective teachers for this work. 

XNVI. IF hat is the policy of the board toivard the Question of 
the certification of teachers in the States ? 1 

Answer. The practices of the several States in certificating teach¬ 
ers necessarily affects the standards and policies of the State in 
certificating teachers of vocational subjects. 

The State board may use Federal moneys for teachers of voca¬ 
tional subjects if they meet the qualifications agreed upon by the 
two boards even though such teachers may not have been certifi¬ 
cated to teach under the State laws. In most States, however, teach¬ 
ers must hold certificates before they can legally be paid for their 
services by the State or community. The Federal board views cer¬ 
tification from the standpoint only of a device which may assist or 
may handicap the State board in securing and holding competent 
instructors. 

The situation as to certification varies widely among the States. 
In States where the legislature has prescribed in detail the subjects 
in which teachers irust be examined for every kind and grade of 
license and has left practically no power in the hands of the State 
educational authorities to issue special licenses for teachers giving 
instruction in vocational education, the Federal board will make 
such adjustments as it deems necessary. Should it be of the opinion 
that the system of certification used interferes with the proper selec¬ 
tion and employment of teachers receiving Federal moneys, it will 
give notice that at the next session of the State legislature remedial 
legislation should be introduced. 

Where the chief school officer of the State of a certificating board is 
empowered to issue special certificates, this authority should be used 

1 “ That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriation for any purpose specified 
in this act, the State board shall prepare plans, showing * * * * qualifications of 

teachers * * (Sec. 8.) 

“ The teachers of any trade or industrial subject in any State shall have at least the 
minimum qualifications for teachers of such subject determined upon for such State by 
the State board, with the approval of the Federal board for vocational education 

* * (Sec. 10.) Section 11 contains a similar provision. 


24441°—17—Bui. 



34 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


so as to establish flexibility in employing and certificating vocational 
teachers. 

Since the State laws governing the examining and licensing of 
teachers were in most instances framed before the rise of vocational 
education, few of them are adapted properly to meet the task of 
selecting and testing teachers for this new field. New standards and 
requirements are demanded. Experience along practical lines must 
be measured. Mechanical skill and the ability to use technical knowl¬ 
edge in a practical way must be tested. For many positions special 
skill and technical knowledge rather than general ability must be 
sought. In many cases practical tests should be given in place of, or 
supplementary to, written examinations. Evidence of successful ex¬ 
perience in a vocation, as well as in teaching, should have large 
weight. The help of the layman, particularly of the practical man, 
should be used in determining the standards and tests by which the 
worth of the applicant for the teaching of any given occupation or 
trade is to be determined. This is equally true whether it be a 
question of trades and industries or agriculture or of home economics. 

Whether the present State provisions for certification admit of no 
flexibility, or whether the State superintendent has power to deal 
temporarily with the difficulty by issuing special licenses, the Federal 
board is of the opinion that the next session of the legislature in 
every State should commit the whole matter of examining and cer¬ 
tificating teachers of vocational subjects into the hands of the State 
board for vocational education, giving it power to establish from 
time to time such standards, tests, rules, and regulations governing 
certificates as that board may deem advisable. 

XXVII. Section 5 states that any State may accept the benefits 
of any one or more of the respective funds. 1 Does this acceptance 
have to be made by the legislature , or could it be made by the State 
board designated or created by the legislaturef In a number of 
States the legislature accepted 2 the provisions of the act “in sweep¬ 
ing phrase ,” but failed to designate whether or not it desired the 
benefits of all the funds or of any one or more of the funds specifi¬ 
cally named. Does this omission prevent such States from qualify¬ 
ing legally under the act f 

Answer. The board believes that the States should accept one or 
more of the several funds created by the act, but not necessarily di- 

1 “ * * * Any State may accept the benefits of any one or more of the respective 

funds herein appropriated, and it may defer the acceptance of the benefits of any one 
or more of such funds, and shall be required to meet only the conditions relative to the 
fund or funds the benefits of which it has accepted * * (Sec. 5.) 

2 “ That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriations provided for in sections 

2, 3, and 4 of this act, any State shall, through' the legislative authority thereof, accept 
the provisions of this act and designate or create a State board, consisting of not less 
than three members, and having all necessary power to cooperate, as herein provided, 
with the Federal Board for Vocational Education in the administration of the provisions 
of this act * * (Sec. 5.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


35 


rectly through the legislature. State boards may be authorized to 
act for the State in this respect, and their acceptance in pursuance 
of such authority would be legally binding in all cases. When States 
have accepted “in sweeping phrase,” such acceptance wfill be con¬ 
sidered as an intent to accept the benefit of all the funds unless the 
contrary is shown. 

XXVIII. For the maintenance of what classes may Federal 
moneys for teacher-training be usedf 

Answer, (a) Regardless of whether or not Federal funds are to be 
used for all the classes or subjects in the course of study it is neces¬ 
sary for a State board to submit the full course for approval by the 
Federal board under*section 8 1 of the act before Federal money may 
be used for any of the classes. 

(b) The fact that the full course of study has been approved does 
not mean that Federal money may be used for the maintenance of 
instruction in all subjects of the approved course. 

( c ) The board realizes that the students vdio are being prepared 
as teachers of vocational subjects will to a greater or less extent be 
taught in the usual and regular classes of the institution giving tech¬ 
nical or pedagogical training to mixed groups of students pursuing 
the work with different aims. In general, the purpose of the teacher¬ 
training fund under the Smith-Hughes xVct is not to cooperate w r ith 
the States in the support of customary courses of instruction, but to 
promote the establishment of courses and subjects having as a dis¬ 
tinct aim the preparation of teachers of vocational subjects for serv¬ 
ice in schools and classes of the type organized under the Smith- 
Hughes Act. For these reasons Federal moneys for teacher-training 
may not be used for the maintenance of mixed classes, but only for 
separate classes. 

(d) Federal funds for the training of teachers may be used only 
on the following conditions: 

(1) That the classes for which these funds are used are com¬ 
posed entirely of those students who are preparing to 
teach in vocational schools. Such students must be pur¬ 
suing the course of study approved by the State and Fed¬ 
eral boards. 


1 “ That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriation for any purpose speci¬ 
fied in this act, the State board shall prepare plans showing the kinds of vocational 
education for which it is propdsed that the appropriation shall be used ; the kinds of 
schools and equipment; courses of study; methods of instruction; qualifications of 
teachers; and, in the case of agricultural subjects, the qualifications of supervisors or 
directors; plans for the tiaining of teachers; and, in the case of agricultural subjects, 
plans for the supervision of agricultural education, as provided for in section 10. Such 
plans shall be submitted by the State board to the Federal Board for Vocational Educa¬ 
tion, and if the Federal board finds the same to be in conformity with the provisions 
and purposes of this act, the same shall be approved * *• (Sec. 8.) 



36 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


(2) That no separate classes for which Federal funds are used 
are to parallel other classes being conducted in the in¬ 
stitution. When such separate classes are formed it must 
be clearly shown that they are a necessary addition to 
classes already in operation for other students. Instruc¬ 
tion in these separate classes must be sufficiently differ¬ 
entiated from the regular classes to justify their establish¬ 
ment and maintenance. 

XXIX. May any money under this act be used by the States for 
commercial education f 

Answer. The moneys appropriated are to be paid to the States 1 
“ for the purpose of cooperating with them in paying the salaries of 
teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects, and 
teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, and in the 
preparation of teachers of agricultural, trade, industrial, and home 
economics subjects.” This purpose does not include the teaching of 
commercial subjects. 

SECTION II. QUESTIONS RELATING TO AGRICULTURAL EDUCA¬ 
TION. 

I. May a land-grant college claim money from the Morrill fund , 
from the Nelson fund , and from the agricultural fund under the 
Smith-Ilughes Act to support the same class or classes in agriculture? 

Answer. No; for these reasons— 

(a) A class must be either of college grade or of less than college 
grade. 

(b) A State board must require institutions to define a class as 
being one or the other. 

( c ) If the class is defined as of college grade it can not use money 
under the Smith-Hughes Act. 2 

(d) .The fact that a class is maintained at least in part by Federal 
moneys granted to institutions as of college grade defines it as of 
college grade. 

( c ) The only way in which a land-grant college can use Federal 
moneys under the Smith-Hughes Act for the salaries of teachers of 
agriculture is by making a separate organization of vocational 
classes of less than college grade. 

1 “ That there is hereby annually appropriated, out of' any money in the Treasury not 

otherwise appropriated, the sums provided in sections 2, 3, and 4 of this act, to he paid to 
the respective States for the purpose of cooperating with the States in paying the salaries 
of teachers of trade, home-eeconomics, and industrial subjects, and in the preparation of 
teachers of agricultural, trade, industrial, and home-economics subjects * * * ” 

(Sec. 1.) 

2 “ * * * That such education shall be of less than college grade * * * ” 

(Sec. 10.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


37 


II. May a person divide his time between supervision of agricul¬ 
tural subjects and the training of teachers of agriculture? If so, out 
of what Federal fund or funds may part of his salary be paid? 

Answer. 1 es; but a definite division of his time between super¬ 
vision and teacher-training should be made at the outset of the fiscal 
year and adhered to. This is necessary whether he receives all his 
salary through the State board or through a State institution or a 
part from each source. The accounts of the State should show both 
the division of his time and the source or sources of his salary. 

III. If a director of vocational education has'under him three 
assistants, one each for agriculture, industry, and home economics, 
will the board approve the payment of one-half or one-third of the 
salary of this director, as well as one-lialf of the salary of the super¬ 
visor of agricultural subjects, provided that the directs meets the 
standards set? 

Answer. Yes; for the year 1917-18, in order to assist the States; 
but the approval of such an arrangement for the current year must 
not be regarded as a precedent. The board believes it to be the intent 
of the Smith-Hughes Act that States should provide directors. 

IV. May the agricultural fund be spent for the salaries of super¬ 
visors or directors of agricultural subjects employed by the State 
rather than by local schools? 

Answer. Yes; section 10 provides 1 that any State may use the ap¬ 
propriation for agricultural purposes, either for the salaries of 
teachers in schools, or for salaries of supervisors or directors, under 
a plan of supervision for the State prepared by the State board and 
approved by the Federal board. 

V. If part of the time of a person supervising agriculture is given 
to the supervision of industrial or home economics education, what 
principles are to govern the payment of Federal moneys for such 
supervision? 

Answer, (a) Under the law a supervisor must meet qualification 
standards set by the State board and approved by the Federal board 
for supervisors of agriculture, 2 otherwise Federal moneys may not 
be used for his salary. 

1 •* That any State may use the appropriation for agricultural purposes, or any part 
thereof allotted to it, under the provisions of this act, for the salaries of teachers, super¬ 
visors, or directors of agricultural subjects, either for the salaries of teachers of such 
subjects in schools or classes or for the salaries of supervisors or directors of such sub¬ 
jects under a plan of supervision for the State to be set up by the State board, with the 
approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education.” (Sec. 10.) 

2 ” * * * The State boards shall prepare plans showing * * * in the case of 

agricultural subjects, the qualifications of supervisors or directors * * *. Such 

plans shall be submitted by the Stale board to the Federal Board for Vocational Educa¬ 
tion and if the Federal board finds the same to be in conformity with the provisions 
and purposes of this act, the same shall be approved.” (Sec. 8.) 



38 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


(b) The amount of time such supervisor gives to agriculture is to 
be figured in proportion to the time given to other subjects as the 
amount spent for the salaries of teachers of agriculture whom he 
supervises is to the amount spent for salaries of teachers of other 
subjects. These figures are to be obtained from the sworn report of 
the State board for the fiscal year. 1 

( c) Where he also supervises teacher-training in agriculture, in¬ 
dustry, and home economics, the same method of prorating is to be 
used. 

VI. What is to be the relation between the State supervisor of 
agriculture and the State leader of boys' and girls' club work? May 
one person serve in both positions? This applies also to county 
supervisors and county leaders of boys' and girls' club work. 

Answer. He may not so serve except (and this only for the current 
year) on the same footing as that of a person serving as supervisor 
of vocational agriculture who, when not so employed, performs such 
other duties as, for example, that of teaching a nonvocational sub¬ 
ject. His status as a teacher of vocational and of nonvocational 
subjects should be sharply defined both as to the amount of time and 
as to the source of his salary. Federal moneys can be used to pay 
for only that part of his time given to supervision of instruction in 
vocational agriculture. 

VII. Will the board allow the use of Federal moneys for short 
coures in agriculture? 

Answer. This involves questions as to the required provision for 
six months of supervised, practical work and as to how far that pro¬ 
vision applies to men operating their own farms. 2 The length of the 
school course in agriculture is independent of the required six months 
of supervised practice on a farm, since that practice must be regarded 
as only a part of the regular instruction, the other part being carried 
on in class. Pupils may be in attendance on school classes for any 
period of time necessary to complete all other than the practical 
work. This time may be long or short, according to the State plan 
adopted. It might be, at least in theory, one week, or one month, 
six months, nine months, or two or more regular school years. The 
State board, however, should set up a system of reports clearly 
showing w T hether or not the practical work was properly supervised. 

1 “ That any State may use the appropriation for agricultural purposes, or any part 
thereof allotted to it, under the provisions of this act, for the salaries of teachers, super¬ 
visors, or directors of agricultural subjects, either for the salaries of teachers of such 
subjects in schools or classes or for the salaries of supervisors or directors of such sub¬ 
jects under a plan of supervision for the State to be set up by the State board, with the 
approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education * * (Sec. 10.) 

2 “ * * * That such schools shall provide for directed or supervised practice in 

agriculture, either on a farm provided for by the school or other farm, for at least six 
months per year * * (Sec. 10.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


30 


The practical work may be either regular farm occupations or 
specific projects. Regular farm work for this purpose implies an 
interpretation of the regular farm duties carried on by the pupil in 
accordance with outlines or instructions prepared by the supervisor, 
corresponding reports by the pupil to the supervisor, and actual visi¬ 
tation by the supervisor to inspect the pupil's work and to confer 
with him. Along with this practical experience must go, of course, 
the class work supplementary to it. 

VIII. The agricultural fund, is allotted to the States on the basis 
of rural population, 1 Nothing is said as to where the States shall 
spend the money. May it be spent for agricultural education in 
communities of more than 2,500 peoplef The industrial fund, in¬ 
cluding that for home economics, is allotted to the States on the 
basis of urban population . 2 Would this prevent the use of that 
money in communities of less than 2,500 people? 

Answer. The Census Bureau, in compiling the population of the 
United States, has classified as urban population that residing in 
cities and places of 2,500 inhabitants or more, and as rural that 
residing in the remainder of the country. Although the allotment 
of money to the States is based on this classification, there is nothing 
in the statutes that requires the funds appropriated for agricultural 
schools to be spent in communities of less than 2,500 or that requires 
the funds appropriated for industrial schools to be used by communi¬ 
ties over 2,500. The distribution of the funds is a matter for the 
State board to determine and it may accordingly place them wher¬ 
ever it believes the money will do the most good. 3 

IX. In matching Federal moneys by funds raised by the State or 
local communities* may the State cet off against Federal funds used 
in the payment of the supervision of agricultural education moneys 
paid by the State or local communities as salaries of teachers? 


1 “ Said sums shall be allotted to the States in the proportion which their rural popu¬ 
lation bears to the total rural population in the United States, not including outlying 
possessions, according to the last preceding United States census * * Sec. 2.) 

a “ Said sums shall be allotted to the States in the proportion which their urban popu¬ 
lation bears to the total urban population in the United States, not including outlying 
possessions, according to the last preceding United States census * * (Sec. 2.) 

8 “ The moneys so received by the custodian for vocational education for any State 
shall be paid out on the requisition of the State board as reimbursement for expenditures 

already incurred to such schools as are approved by said State board and are entitled 

to receive such moneys under the provisions of this act.” (Sec. 14.) 

<“* * * The moneys expended under the provisions of this act in cooperation 

with the States, for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural 
subjects, or for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial sub¬ 
jects, shall be conditioned that for each dollar of Federal money expended for such 
salaries the State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for such 

salaries ; and that appropriations for the training of teachers of vocational subjects, as 

herein provided, shall be conditioned that such money be expended for maintenance of 
such training, and that for each dollar of Federal money so expended for maintenance 
the State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for the main¬ 
tenance of such training * * (Sec. 9.) 



40 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


Answer: The method in which a State may use its allotment for 
supervision of agricultural education will be controlled entirely by 
the provisions of the plan approved by the board. 1 In such plans 
the board will consider the teaching of agricultural subjects and 
supervision of agricultural education as separate and distinct lines 
of work, and funds expended by the State or local communities for 
salaries of teachers can not therefore be used to match Federal 
funds paid for supervision. In every instance States will be re¬ 
quired to show that the Federal funds used for each purpose are 
matched by at least an equal sum furnished by the State or local 
communities for the same purpose. 

X. How far may successful experience in teaching vocational agri¬ 
culture be accepted in lieu of the training in agriculture to be re¬ 
quired as a qualification by the State board ? 2 

Answer. The Federal board recognizes that, in some States at 
least, the new standards for qualifications of teachers will be higher 
than those now required for certification, and that schools have 
already made contracts with teachers for the school year 1917-18. 
Therefore if the qualifications of teachers already employed ap¬ 
proach the new standards and if those teachers can show successful 
experience in giving instruction in agriculture of the character and 
grade for wdiich the State board pToposes to use Federal moneys, 
that experience may be accepted as a substitute. The State board, 
how r ever, should require all such teachers to secure within a reason¬ 
able time the training necessary to meet the new standards. 

XI. May Federal moneys under the Nelson Act and Federal 
moneys under the Smith-Hughes Act be used for the maintenance of 
the same teacher-training classes in agriculture? 

Answer. Yes; but no Federal moneys expended under the Nelson 
Act can be used to match Federal moneys under the Smith-Hughes 
Act. For every dollar of national funds expended by the State under 
the Smith-Hughes Act, the State or local community, or both, must 
expend an equal amount for the maintenance of the same class or 
classes. Such fund must be used in accordance with the laws and 
regulations governing that fund. 

XII. What is the policy of the Federal board with regard to the 
land-grant colleges and the fumd for training teachers available under 
the Nelson Act? 

1 “ That any State may use the appropriation for agricultural purposes, or any part 

thereof allotted to it, under the provisions of this act, for the salaries of teachers, 
supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, either for the salaries of teachers of 
such subjects in schools or classes or for the salaries of supervisors or directors of such 
subjects, under a plan of supervision for the State to be set up by the State board with 
the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education * * (Sec. 10.) 

2 See note under Section I, Question XVIII. 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 41 

Answer, (a) The Federal board is charged with administering a 
fund to be used for training teachers primarily for service in schools 
meeting certain definite standards under the act. 

(5) At the same time, however, the board fully recognizes the need 
for preparation in agriculture on the part of teachers who are to 
teach in the rural schools or in other schools not meeting the re¬ 
quirements of the Smith-Hughes Act. 

(c) The preparation of such teachers, so far as the Federal Gov¬ 
ernment is concerned, has already been provided for under the Nel¬ 
son amendment of the Morrill Act, which after making an annual 
appropriation for the more complete endowment and maintenance 
of agricultural colleges now established, or which may hereafter be 
established, in accordance with the act of Congress approved July 2, 
18G2, and the act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, by a proviso 
contained in section 2 declares “ that said colleges may use a portion 
of this money for providing courses for the special preparation of in¬ 
structors for teaching the elements of agriculture and mechanic arts.” 

XIII. May a land-grant college operate a teacher-training school 
in agriculture and a secondary school in agriculture in the same 
buildings and use Federal moneys for both? 

Answer. The State board should require absolute separation of all 
instruction for teacher-training classes from that of secondary grade 
fitting for the pursuit of agriculture, if either, or both, are to receive 
Federal moneys under the Smith-Hughes Act. In the latter case, 
the two forms of instruction would be supported out of different 
Federal funds and a separate accounting will be required. 

XIV. May Federal moneys be used to pay a part of the salary of 
a supervisor or director of agriculture for such a portion of his time 
as he gives for supervision of agricultural schools in the State other 
than those qualified to receive Federal money? Was it the purpose 
of the Smith-llughes AcS to restrict the payments of salaries of super¬ 
visors of agriculture to service in the supervision of schools meeting 
the standards of the Smith-Hughes Act? 

Answer. In the opinion of the board it was the intent of the act 
to use a part of the agricultural fund for the salaries of supervisors 
who would give their time to the improvement of schools and classes 
receiving Federal moneys for instruction in agricultural subjects 
and not for the general supervision of agricultural training in the 
States. 1 


1 See sec. 10 in notes, supra. 





42 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


SECTION III. QUESTIONS RELATING TO INDUSTRIAL EDUCA¬ 
TION. 

I. What should be the entrance requirements for the all-day 
schools ? 1 

Answer: While a minimum age of 14 is the only requirement in 
the Smith-Hughes Act, the Federal board recommends that care be 
taken to secure pupils who are physically and mentally able to do 
the work required. While neither an absolute nor a uniform stand¬ 
ard as to educational qualifications can be fixed, experience shows 
that pupils failing to make normal progress in the regular schools 
rarely do satisfactory vocational work. Ability to do the work of the 
all-day industrial school should be the determining test even after 
admission. A probationary period of attendance will enable the 
school to determine the boy’s or girl’s real ability. Communities 
maintaining all-day vocational .schools should offer their opportuni¬ 
ties to all capable boys and girls and should see to it that such 
schools do not become the resort of the undesirable, the feeble-minded, 
or the physically weak. 

II. When pupils work in a class and in a privately owned shop on 
alternate days , weeks , or months , are such schools to be considered 
all-day 2 or part-time ? 3 What principles are to determine in any 
given year? 

Answer. The determining factor is whether the pupils, when in 
such shop, are entirely under the supervision and control of the 
school. If they are, it is an all-day school. If not, it is a part-time 
school. This is true regardless of the fact that the pupils are, or are 
not, paid. The final test is whether or not the shop work is carried on 
independently or as an integral part of the school. 

III. What is meant , in section H, by the requirement that instruc¬ 
tion in an industrial or trade subject shall extend over not less than 
nine months per year? 2 

Answer. This section is interpreted by the Federal board as re¬ 
quiring a day industrial school to be in session during nine months 
of four weeks eaclq regardless of the calendar months, and including 


1 “ * * * That such education shall be of less than college grade and shall be de¬ 

signed to meet the needs of persons over 14 years of age who are preparing for a trade 
or industrial pursuit or who have entered upon the work of a trade or industrial 
pursuit.” (Sec. 11.) 

2 “ * * * That such schools or classes giving instruction to persons who have 

not entered upon employment shall require that at least half of the time of such instruc¬ 
tion be given to practical work on a useful or productive basis, such instruction to extend 
over not less than nine months per year and not less than thirty hours per week.” 
(Sec. 11.) 

3 “ * * * That at least one-third of the sum appropriated to any State for the 

salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects shall, if expended, 
be applied to part-time schools or classes for workers over 14 years of age who have 
entered upon employment.” (Sec. 11.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


43 


only such holidays as are commonly observed by the regular public 
schools. 

IV. I \ hat is meant by “hours ” in the requirement that instruc¬ 
tion in industrial , home economics , or trade subjects in a day school 
shall be given for not less than 30 hours per week ? 1 

Answer. By hour is meant a period of 60 minutes, the “clock 
hour being intended rather than that shorter recitation or study 
period sometimes called by schools an “ hour.” 

V. What is meant by practical work on a useful or productive 
basis? 

Answer. This is interpreted to mean work similar to that carried 
on in the particular trade or industry taught. Such work is on a 
useful or productive basis when it results in a product of economic 
value comparable with that produced by a standard shop or factory. 

VI. What work , other than shop work , given in an all-day school , 
may be included in the term “ industrial subjects ” for which teachers 
may be paid , in part , from Federal moneys? 

Answer. The State board must be satisfied that such work is in¬ 
herent in the vocation taught in the school and is a subject which 
enlarges the trade knowledge of the worker. For example, in a 
machine-shop school which gives at least three hours a day to shop 
work, a part of the remaining, time might be given to such topics as 
machine-shop mathematics, drawing as related to the machine-shop 
trades, science applied to the machine shop, and the hygiene of the 
,trade. In a school which teaches printing time devoted to related 
studies might be given to such subjects as estimating costs, English 
for printers, art in printing — such as the layout of a paper, proper 
margins and title pages—science as related to printing, and hygiene 
of the trade. Before such work in related subjects can be reimbursed 
from Federal funds the State board must be satisfied that the 
teacher has had satisfactory contact with the vocation in which the 
related work is supplementary. 

VII. The act 2 fixes the age of 16 years as a minimum entrance re¬ 
quirement for evening industrial schools. Does this mean that such 
schools shall be open to persons 16 years or over , or may a Stale es¬ 
tablish an entrance age requirement above 16 years? 

Answer. Congress in enacting this provision has not declared that 
a minimum entrance requirement shall be fixed at not less than 16 
years, but has specifically prescribed 16 years as the requirement. 

1 “* * * That such schools or classes giving instruction to persons who have not 

entered upon employment shall require that at least half of the time of such instruction 
be given to practical work on a useful or productive basis, such instruction to extend 
over not less than nine months per year and not less than 30 hours per week.” (Sec. 11.) 

2 “ * * * That evening industrial schools shall fix the age of 16 years as a mini¬ 
mum entrance requirement * * (Sec. 11.) 



44 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


The board is of the opinion that this requirement is mandatory, and 
that consequently if the Federal funds are to be used to aid States 
in conducting education in schools of this character, such schools 
must be open to persons 16 years and over. 

VIII. The statute requires that schools which give instruction to 
persons who have not entered upon employment , shall require that at 
least half the time of such instruction he given to practical work on 
a useful or productive basis , such instruction to extend over not less 
than nine months every year and not less than SO hours per weekl 
Shall the half time for practical work be based on the minimum 
number of hours per week required by the statute or on the maximum 
number of hours which the school operates? 

Answer. The board believes that the effect of the provision re¬ 
ferred to in this question is twofold. (1) It requires that at least 
one-half the time given to instruction shall be devoted to practical 
work, irrespective of the number of hours per week required of 
students; (2) it establishes a minimum period of instruction. These 
requirements are in no way connected, but are, on the contrary, 
separate and distinct, and each must be given full force and effect. 
Consequently in cases where it is proposed to conduct schools for a 
longer period than the minimum prescribed by the act, the half time 
for practical work must be based on the number of hours during 
which the school operates. 

IX. What kinds of work in part-time schools or classes will be 
entitled to reimbursement from Federal moneys? 1 2 

Answer. It is neither possible nor advisable at the present stage 
of development of part-time schools and classes to define the many 
varieties and types which now, or in the future, may be entitled to 
national aid under section 2 of the Smith-Hughes Act. 

In general Federal moneys may be used to pay the salaries of 
teachers employed in those part-time schools or classes where wage¬ 
working boys or girls receive any or all of the following benefits: 

{a) Increased skill or knowledge in the occupation which the 
wageworker is following. 

(b) Skill or knowledge leading to promotion in the industry or 
calling wherein the wageworker is engaged. 

( c ) Improvement in the knowledge of regular subjects which the 
wageworker did not complete in school. 

(d) Increased civic or vocational intelligence. 

1 “ * * * That such schools or classes giving instruction to persons who have not 

entered upon, employment shall require that at least half of the time of such instruc¬ 
tion be given to practical work on a useful or productive basis, such instruction to 
extend over not less than nine months per year and not less than 30 hours per week 
* * (Sec. 11.) 

2 See note, p. —. 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 45 

(e) Skill and knowledge in home economics for girls employed as 
wageworkers. 

In general any part-time school must be in session during a part 
of the working time (day, week, month, or year) of its pupils; while 
an evening school or class must be in session outside the regular 
working hours of its pupils. 

When a community asks the State board to certify a part-time 
school or class for Federal aid, the board should require the local 
authorities to state the aim or aims of such school or class in terms 
of the approved benefits for wageworking youth set forth above. 
The State board should then measure the school or class, both at 
starting and while under supervision, by the standards which that 
school or class must establish in the light of its declared aims. To 
do this, the board must have full knowledge of all such facts as the 
occupations of the pupils, the length of the course in hours per day, 
week, month, or year, the plant and equipment, the courses of study, 
methods of instruction, and qualifications of teachers. 

The number of aims or benefits which the school or class is to 
undertake should be governed by the number of hours available for 
instruction; and pupils should be so grouped and taught as to deal 
definitely with one aim at a time. Preferably, the aims should be 
few to insure effective results; and care should be taken not to at¬ 
tempt inconsistent or conflicting aims with the same pupils. For 
example, a part-time class, having but four hours per week for in¬ 
struction, should not attempt for any given group more than two 
of the above aims as a maximum. 

X. What is meant by the evpression “ evening industrial schools 

* * * shall confine instruction to that which is supplemental to 

the daily employment? ” 1 

Answer. Evening instruction can be given only in such subjects as 
will increase skill or knowledge in the occupation in which the 
worker is engaged as his daily employment, or as will lead to pro¬ 
motion or advancement in that work. The time available in an 
evening school is so short that it is impossible to teach a skilled trade 
to anyone unless he is engaged in daily work affording him oppor¬ 
tunity to apply the skill or knowledge gained in the evening school, 
or unless the daily employment gives an experience which will en¬ 
able the worker, with the knowledge, or skill acquired in an evening 
school, to secure promotion in that occupation. The work can be 
most effectively given when workers in similar or allied occupations 
are grouped together. 

i “ * * * Thnt evening industrial schools * * * shall confine instruction to 

that which is supplemental to the daily employment.” (Sec. 11.) 



46 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


SECTION IV. QUESTIONS RELATING TO HOME ECONOMICS. 

I. What interpretation is given to the clause in section 11 1 provid¬ 
ing that at least half the time of instruction shall he given to prac¬ 
tical work on a useful or productive basis ? 2 

Answer: The clause is held to mean that at least half the time of 
instruction shall be devoted to practical and related subjects in home 
economics, such as garment making, foods and cookery, sanitation 
and home nursing, house planning, and house furnishing, textiles, 
millinery, dressmaking, and home management. This would leave 
the remaining time for instruction in non vocational subjects, such as 
drawing and design, general science, physiology, chemistry, physics, 
English, civics, history, and elementary economics. 

Wherever the size and organization of the school permit, it is 
highly desirable that pupils be separately grouped for instruction. 
In that case the drawing and science can be so given as to bear di¬ 
rectly on the home economics, and they would then become addi¬ 
tional related vocational subjects. Thus the total amount of time 
given to home economics is increased and the teacher of such related 
subjects may be paid, in part, from Federal moneys. 

Since the law requires a day school or class giving instruction in 
home economics or industrial subjects to be in session at least 6 hours 
per day or 360 minutes, it will be necessary for at least 180 minutes 
daily to be given to practice and related instruction in home eco¬ 
nomics. Of this 180 minutes, not less than 120 minutes daily shall 
be devoted to the practical work connected with the subject, leaving 
a total of not more than 60 minutes for instruction in related sub¬ 
jects such as those outlined above. It is understood, of course, that 
the time given to practical work and related subjects may be in ex¬ 
cess of 180 minutes, and that the related subjects may then include, 
in addition to those which must be taught within the 180 minutes, 
such subjects as applied * drawing and design and applied science, 
which, when made directly applicable to home economics work, be¬ 
come related vocational subjects for which Federal moneys may be 
used. 

1 “ * * * That such schools or classes giving instruction to persons who have not 

entered upon employment shall require that at least half of the time of such instruc¬ 
tion he given to practical work on a useful or productive basis, such instruction to 
extend over not less than nine months per year and not less than thirty hours per week.” 
(Sec. 11.) 

2 “ * * * That for cities and towns of less than 25,000 population, according to 

the last preceding United States census, the State board, with the approval of the 
Federal Board for Vocational Education, may modify the conditions as to the length of 
course and hours of instruction per week for schools and classes giving instruction to 
those who have not entered upon employment, in order to meet the particular needs of 
such cities and towns.” (Sec. 11.) 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


47 


The act provides that for cities of less than 25,000 population, the 
State board, with the approval of the Federal board, may modify 
the conditions as to length of course and hours of instruction per 
week. 

The Federal board is of the opinion that, in making such modifica¬ 
tions, the number of hours of instruction per week should in no case 
be less than 25 or the number of hours of instruction per day less 
than 5, a total of 300 minutes. 

Of this 300 minutes, 150 will be devoted, as the law requires, to 
instruction in practical work and related subjects, such as garment 
making, household planning and household furnishing, textiles, mil¬ 
linery, dressmaking, and home management just as is required in 
practical work or related subjects in the case of cities of more than 
25,000 people. 

In addition there may be included within the 150 minutes required 
for home-economics instruction such additional related subjects as 
general science applied to the household, drawing and design applied 
to clothing and the heme, household chemistry, and household physics. 

While such schools may give more than 150 minutes per day to 
home-economics work, they must give not less than 150 minutes to 
such subject matter as that described above. Of this 150 minutes not 
less than 90 are to be devoted to practical work in home economics and 
not more than 60 minutes to these related subjects. 

II. What is the meaning of the requirement in section 11 that 
evening school instruction shall he supplemental to the day employ¬ 
ment f x 

Answer. The evening-school instruction must be given to those 
whose work is such that the skill or knowledge taught helps the 
worker in her present-day employment to greater efficiency, better 
wages, or promotion. This will admit to such classes those who are 
engaged to any extent or in any way in the performance of house¬ 
hold duties. 

III. What effect upon the use of money for the payment of salaries 
of teachers of home economics has the fact that home economics is 
omitted from the caption of the Federal actf What effect would 
this have upon the use of money for home economics in States which , 
quoting from the caption of the Federal act , omitted home economics 
from the provisions of its enabling act? 

i “ * * * That evening industrial schools shall fix the age of 16 years as a mini¬ 

mum entrance requirement and shall confine instruction to that which is supplemental 
to the daily employment; that the teachers of any trade or industrial subject in any 
State shall have at least the minimum qualifications for teachers of such subject deter¬ 
mined upon for such State by the State board, with the approval of the Federal Board 
for Vocational Education.” (Sec. 11.) 



48 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


Answer. The language of the title 1 of the act is broad enough to 
include home economics, and if the States have accepted the pro¬ 
vision of the act by quoting its title, the board will deem such action 
an acceptance of the benefits for home economics as well as for the 
other vocational subjects. 

IV. Hoiv far may successful experience in teaching home economics 
he accepted as a substitute for the training in that subject required as 
a qualification under the Smith-Hughes Actf 2 

Answer. The Federal board recognizes that in some States, at least, 
the new standards for qualification of teachers will be higher than 
those now required for certification and that schools have already 
made contracts with teachers for the school year 1917-18. Therefore, 
if the qualifications of teachers already employed approach the new 
standards and if these teachers can show successful experience in 
giving instruction in home economics of the character and grade 
for which the State board proposes to use Federal moneys, that ex¬ 
perience may be accepted as a substitute. The State board, however, 
should require all such teachers to secure within a reasonable time 
the training necessary to meet the new standards. 


1 “ An act to provide for the promotion of vocational education ; to provide for co¬ 
operation with the States in the promotion of such education in agriculture and the 
trades and industries; to provide for the cooperation with the States in the preparation 
of teachers of vocational subjects ; and to appropriate money and regulate its expendi¬ 
ture.” (Title of Smith-Hughes Act.) 

2 “ * * * That the teachers of any trade or industrial subject in any State shall 

have at least the minimum qualifications for teachers of such subject determined upon 
for such State board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Educa¬ 
tion * * (Sec. 11.) 


V 







APPENDIXES 



APPENDIX A. 

SECTION 1. 

[Public, No. 347, Sixtv-fourtii Congress.] 

[S. 703.] 

AN ACT To provide for the promotion of vocational education; to provide for co¬ 
operation •with the States in the promotion of such education in agriculture and the 
trades and industries; to provide for cooperation with the States in the preparation 
of teachers of vocational subjects; and to appropriate money and regulate its expendi¬ 
ture. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and Home of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That there is hereby annually appro¬ 
priated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the 
sums provided in sections two, three, and four of this Act, to be paid to the 
respective States for the purpose of cooperating with the States in paying the 
salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects, and 
teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, and in the prepara¬ 
tion of teachers of agricultural, trade, industrial, and home economics subjects; 
and the sum provided for in section seven for the use of the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education for the administration of this Act and for the purpose of 
making studies, investigations, and reports to aid in the organization and con¬ 
duct of vocational education, which sums shall be expended as hereinafter 
provided. 

Sec. 2. That for the purpose of cooperating with the States in paying the 
salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects there is 
hereby appropriated for the use of the States, subject to the provisions of this 
Act, for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen, the 
sum of $500,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and 
nineteen, the sum of $750,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen 
hundred and twenty, the sum of $1,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June 
thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-one, the sum of $1,250,000; for the fiscal 
year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-two, the sum of 
$1,500,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and 
twenty-three, the sum of $1,750,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, 
nineteen hundred and twenty-four, • the sum of $2,000,000; for the fiscal year 
ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-five, the sum of $2,500,000; 
for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-six, and 
annually thereafter, the sum of $3,000,000. Said sums shall be allotted to the 
States in the proportion which their rural population bears to the total rural 
population in the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to 
the last preceding United States census; Provided, That the allotment of funds 
to any State shall be not less than a minimum of $5,000 for any fiscal year prior 
to and including the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and 

49 




50 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


twenty-three; nor less than $10,000 for any fiscal year thereafter, and there is 
hereby appropriated the following sums, or so much thereof as may be necessary, 
which shall be used for the purpose of providing the minimum allotment to the 
States provided for in this section: For the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, 
nineteen hundred and eighteen, the sum of $48,000; for the fiscal year ending 
June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, the sum of $34,000; for the fiscal 
year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, the sum of $24,000; 
for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-one, the 
sum of $18,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and 
twenty-two, the sum of $14,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nine¬ 
teen hundred and twenty-three, the sum of $11,000; for the fiscal year ending 
June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-four, the sum of $9,000; for the 
fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-five, the sum of 
$34,000; and annually thereafter the sum of $27,000. 

Sec. 3. That for the purpose of cooperating with the States in paying the 
salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects there is 
hereby appropriated for the use of the States, for the fiscal year ending June 
thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen, the sum of $500,000; for the fiscal 
year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, the sum of $750,000; 
for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, the 
sum of $1,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred 
and twenty-one, the sum of $1,250,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, 
nineteen hundred and twenty-two, the sum of $1,500,000; for the fiscal year 
ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-three, the sum of $1,750,000; 
for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-four, 
the sum of $2,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hun¬ 
dred and twenty-five, the sum of $2,500,000; for the fiscal year ending June 
thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-six, the sum of $3,000,000; and annu¬ 
ally thereafter the sum of $3,000,000. Said sums shall be allotted to the States 
in the proportion which their urban population bears to the total urban popula¬ 
tion in the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to the 
last preceding United States census: Provided, That the allotment of funds 
to any State shall be not less than a minimum of $5,000 for any fiscal year 
prior to and including the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred 
and twenty-three, nor less than $10,000 for any fiscal year thereafter, and there 
is hereby appropriated the following sums, or so much thereof as may be 
needed, which shall be used for the purpose of providing the minimum allot¬ 
ment to the States provided for in this section: For the fiscal year ending 
June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen, the sum of $66,000; for the 
fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, the sum of 
$46,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, 
the sum of $34,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred 
and twenty-one, the sum of $28,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, 
nineteen hundred and twenty-two, the sum of $25,000; for the fiscal year end¬ 
ing June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-three, the sum of $22,000; for 
the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-four, the 
sum of $19,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and 
twenty-five, the sum of $56,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nine¬ 
teen hundred and twenty-six, and annually thereafter, the sum of $50,000. 

That not more than twenty per centum of the money appropriated under 
this Act for the payment of salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and 
industrial subjects, for any year, shall be expended for the salaries of teachers 
of home economics subjects. 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


51 


Sec. 4. That for the purpose of cooperating with the States in preparing 
teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects and teachers of 
trade and industrial and home economics subjects there is hereby appropriated 
for tiie use of the States for the tiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen 
hundred and eighteen, the sum of $500,000; for the fiscal year ending June 
thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, the sum of $700,000; for the fiscal 
year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, the sum of $000,000; 
for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-one, 
and annually thereafter, the sum of $1,000,000. Said sums shall be allotted 
to the States in the proportion which their population bears to the total popu¬ 
lation of the United States, not including outlying i>ossessions, according to the 
last preceding United States census: Provided, That the allotment of funds 
to any State shall be not less than a minimum of $5,000 for any fiscal year 
prior to and including the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred 
and nineteen, nor less than $10,000 for any fiscal year thereafter. And there 
is hereby appropriated the following sums, or so much thereof as may be 
needed, which shall be used for the purpose of providing the minimum allot¬ 
ment provided for in this section : For the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, 
nineteen hundred and eighteen, the sum of $46,000; for the fiscal year ending 
June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, the sum of $32,000; for the 
fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, the sum of 
$24,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and 
twenty-one, and annually thereafter, the sum of $90,000. 

Sec. 5. That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriations provided 
for in sections two, three, and four of this Act, any State shall, through the 
legislative authority thereof, accept the provisions of this Act and designate or 
create a State board, consisting of not less than three members, and having 
all necesssary power to cooperate, as herein provided, with the Federal Board 
for Vocational Education in the administration of the provisions of this Act. 
The State board of education, or other board having charge of the administra¬ 
tion of public education in the State, or any State board having charge of the 
administration of any kind of vocational education in the State may, if the 
State so elect, be designated as the State board, for the purposes of this Act. 

In any State the legislature of which does not meet in nineteen hundred and 
seventeen, if the governor of that State, so far as he is authorized to do so, 
shall accept the provisions of this Act and designate or create a State board 
of not less than three members to act in cooperation with the Federal Board 
for Vocational Education, the Federal board shall recognize such local board 
for the purposes of this Act until the legislature of such State meets in due 
course and has been in session sixty days. 

Any State may accept the benefits of any one or more of the respective funds 
herein appropriated, and it may defer the acceptance of the benefits of any 
one or more of such funds, and shall be required to meet only the conditions 
relative to the fund or funds the benefits of which it has accepted: Provided , 
That after June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, no State shall receive 
any appropriation for salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agicul- 
tural subjects, until it shall have taken advantage of at least the minimum 
amount appropriated for the training of teachers, supervisors, or directors of 
agricultural subjects, as provided for in this Act, and that after said date no 
State shall receive any appropriation for the salaries of teachers of trade, homo 
economics, and industrial subjects until it shall have taken advantage of at 
least the minimum amount appropriated for the training of teachers of trade, 
home economics, and industrial subjects, as provided for in this Act. 


52 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


Sec. 6. That a Federal Board for Vocational Education is hereby created, 
to consist of the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce, the 
Secretary of Labor, the United States Commissioner of Education, and three 
citizens of the United States to be appointed by the President, by and with the 
advice and consent of the Senate. One of said three citizens shall be a repre¬ 
sentative of the manufacturing and commercial interests, one a representative 
of the agricultural interests, and one a representative of labor. The board 
shall elect annually one of its members as chairman. In the first instance, 
one of the citizen members shall be appointed for one year, one for two years, 
and one for three years, and thereafter for three years each. The members of 
the board other than the members of the Cabinet and the United States Com¬ 
missioner of Education shall receive a salary of $5,000 per annum. 

The board shall have power to cooperate with State boards in carrying out 
the provisions of this Act. It shall be the duty of the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education to make, or cause to have made studies, investigations, 
and reports, with particular reference to their use in aiding the States in the 
establishment of vocational schools and classes and in giving instruction in 
agriculture, trades and industries, commerce and commercial pursuits, and 
home economics. Such studies, investigations, and reports shall include agri¬ 
culture and agricultural processes and requirements upon agricultural workers; 
trades, industries, and apprenticeships, trade and industrial requirements 
upon industrial workers, and classification of industrial processes and pursuits; 
commerce and commercial pursuits and requirements upon commercial workers; 
home management, domestic science, and the study of related facts and prin¬ 
ciples; and problems of administration of vocational schools and of courses 
of study and instruction in vocational subjects. 

When the board deems it advisable such studies, investigations, and reports 
concerning agriculture, for the purposes of agricultural education, may be made 
in cooperation with or through the Department of Agriculture; such studies, 
investigations, and reports concerning trades and industries, for the purposes 
of trade and industrial education, may be made in cooperation with or through 
the Department of Labor; such studies, investigations, and reports concerning 
commerce and commercial pursuits, for the purposes of commercial education, 
may be made in cooperation with or through the Department of Commerce; 
such studies, investigations, and reports concerning the administration of voca¬ 
tional schools, courses of study and instruction in vocational subjects, may be 
made in cooperation with or through the Bureau of Education. 

The Commissioner of Education may make such recommendations to the 
board relative to the administration of this Act as he may from time to time 
deem advisable. It shall be the duty of the chairman of the board to carry out 
the rules, regulations, and decisions which the board may adopt. The Federal 
Board for Vocational Education shall have power to employ such assistants as 
may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act. 

Sec. 7. That there is hereby appropriated to the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education the sum of $200,000 annually, to be available from and after the 
passage of this Act, for the purpose of making or cooperating in making the 
studies, investigations, and reports provided for in section six of this Act, and 
for the purpose of paying the salaries of the officers, the assistants, and such 
office and other expenses as the board may deem necessary to the execution and 
administration of this Act. 

Sec. 8. That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriation for any pur¬ 
pose specified in this Act, the State board shall prepare plans, showing the kinds 
of vocational education for which it is proposed that the appropriation shall 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


53 


be nsed; the kinds of schools and equipment; courses of study • methods of in¬ 
struction; qualifications of teachers; and, in the case of agricultural subjects 
the qualifications of supervisors or directors; plans for the training of teachers; 
and, in the case of agricultural subjects, plans for the supervision of agricultural 
education, as provided for in section ten. Such plans shall he submitted by 
the State board to the Federal Board for Vocational Education, and if the 
Federal board finds the same to be in conformity with the provisions and pur¬ 
poses of this Act, the same shall be approved. The State board shall make an 
annual report to the Federal Board for Vocational Education, on or before 
September first of each year, on the work done in the State and the receipts 
and expenditures of money under the provisions of this Act. 

Sec. 9. That the appropriation for the salaries of teachers, supervisors,' or 
directors of agricultural subjects and of teachers of trade, home economics, and 
industrial subjects shall be devoted exclusively to the payment of salaries of 
such teachers, supervisors, or directors having the minimum qualifications sot 
up for the State by the State board, with the approval of the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education. The cost of instruction supplementary to the instruc¬ 
tion in agricultural and in trade, home economics, and industrial subjects pro¬ 
vided for in this Act, necessary to build a well-rounded course of training, shall 
be borne by the State and local communities, and no part of the cost thereof 
shall be borne out of the appropriations herein made. The moneys expended 
under the provisions of this Act, in cooperation with the States, for the salaries 
of teachers, supervisors, or directors of .agricultural subjects, or for the salaries 
of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, shall be condi¬ 
tioned that for each dollar of Federal money expended for such salaries the 
State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for such 
salaries; and that appropriations for the training of teachers of vocational sub¬ 
jects, as herein provided, shall be conditioned that such money be expended for 
maintenance of such training and that for each dollar of Federal money so ex¬ 
pended for maintenance, the State or local community, or both, shall expend an 
equal amount for the maintenance of such training. 

Sec. 10. That any State may use the appropriation for agricultural purposes, 
or any part thereof allotted to it, under the provisions of this Act, for the sal¬ 
aries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, either for 
the salaries of teachers of such subjects in schools or classes or for the salaries 
of supervisors or directors of such subjects under a plan of supervision for the 
State to be set up by the State board, with the approval of the Federal Board 
for Vocational Education. That in order to receive the benefits of such appro¬ 
priation for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural 
subjects the State hoard of any State shall provide in its plan for agricul¬ 
tural education that such education shall he that which is under public super¬ 
vision or control; that the controlling purpose of such education shall be to fit 
for useful employment; that such education shall be of less than college grade 
and be designed to meet the needs of persons over fourteen years of age who 
have entered upon or who are preparing to enter upon the work of the farm 
or of the farm home; that the State or local community, or both, shall provide 
the necessary plant and equipment determined upon by the State board, with 
the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, as the minimum 
requirement for such education in schools and classes in the State; that the 
amount expended for the maintenance of such education in any school or 
class receiving the benefit of such appropriation shall be not less annually 
than the amount fixed by the State board, with the approval of the Federal 
board as the minimum for such schools or classes in the State; that such 


54 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


schools shall provide for directed or supervised practice in agriculture, either 
on a farm provided for by the school or other farm, for at least six months per 
year; that the teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects shall 
have at least the minimum qualifications determined for the State by the 
State board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. 

Sec. 11. That in order to receive the benefits of the appropriation for the sala¬ 
ries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects the State 
board of any State shall provide in its plan for trade, home economics, and 
industrial education that such education shall be given in schools or classes 
under public supervision or control; that the controlling purpose of such edu¬ 
cation shall be to fit for useful employment; that such education shall be of 
less than college grade and shall be designed to meet the needs of persons over 
fourteen years of age who are preparing for a trade or industrial pursuit or 
who have entered upon the work of a trade or industrial pursuit; that the 
State or local community, or both, shall provide the necessary plant and equip¬ 
ment determined upon by the State board, with the approval of the Federal 
Board for Vocational Education, as the minimum requirement in such State for 
education for any given trade or industrial pursuit; that the total amount ex¬ 
pended for the maintenance of such education in any school or class receiving 
the benefit of such appropriation shall be not less annually than the amount 
fixed by the State board, with the approval of the Federal board, as the mini¬ 
mum for such schools or classes in the State; that such schools or classes 
giving instruction to persons who have not entered upon employment shall 
require that at least half of the time of such instruction be given to practical 
work on a useful or productive basis, such instruction to extend over not less 
than nine months per year and not less than thirty hours per week; that at 
least one-third, of the sum appropriated to any State for the salaries of teachers 
of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects shall, if expended, be applied 
to part-time schools or classes for workers over fourteen years of age who have 
entered upon employment, and such subjects in a part-time school or class may 
mean any subject given to enlarge the civic or vocational intelligence of such 
workers over fourteen and less than eighteen years of age; that such part-time 
schools or classes shall provide for not less than one hundred and forty-four 
hours of classroom instruction per year; that evening industrial schools shall 
fix the age of sixteen years as a minimum entrance requirement and shall con¬ 
fine instruction to that which is supplemental to the daily employment; that the 
teachers of any trade or industrial subject in any State shall have at least the 
minimum qualifications for teachers of such subject determined upon for such 
State by the State board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education: Provided, That for cities and towns of less than twenty-five thou¬ 
sand population, according to the last preceding United States census, the State 
board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, may 
modify the conditions as to the length of course and hours of instruction per 
week for schools and classes giving instruction to those who have not entered 
upon employment, in order to meet the particular needs of such cities and towns. 

Sec. 12. That in order for any State to receive the benefits of the appro¬ 
priation in this Act for the training of teachers, supervisors, or directors of 
agricultural subjects, or of teachers of trade, industrial or home economics 
subjects, the State board of such State shall provide in its plan for such train¬ 
ing that the same shall be carried out under the supervision of the State board; 
that such training shall be given in schools or classes under public supervision 
or control; that such training shall be given only to persons who have had ade¬ 
quate vocational experience or contact in the line of work for which they are 
preparing themselves as teachers, supervisors, or directors, or who are acquir- 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


55 


mg such experience or contact as a part of their training; and that the State 
hoard, with the approval of the Federal board, shall establish minimum require¬ 
ments for such experience or contact for teachers, supervisors, or directors of 
agricultural subjects and for teachers of trade, industrial, and home economics 
subjects; that not more than sixty per centum nor less than twenty per centum 
of (he money appropriated under this Act for the training of teachers of voca¬ 
tional subjects to any State for any year shall be expended for any one of 
the following purposes: For the preparation of teachers, supervisors, or 
directors of agricultural subjects, or the preparation of teachers of trade and 
industrial subjects, or the preparation of teachers of home economics subjects. 

Sec. 13. That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriations for the 
salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or for 
the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, or 
for the training of teachers as herein provided, any State shall, through the leg¬ 
islative authority thereof, appoint as custodian for said appropriations its 
State treasurer, who shall receive and provide for the proper custody and dis¬ 
bursements of all money paid to the State from said appropriations. 

Sec. 14. That the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall annually 
ascertain whether the several States are using, or are prepared to use, the 
money received by them in accordance with the provisions of this Act. On 
or before the first day of January of each year the Federal Board for Voca¬ 
tional Education shall certify to the Secretary of the Treasury each State which 
has accepted the provisions of this Act and complied therewith, certifying the 
amounts which each State is entitled to receive under the provisions of this 
Act. Upon such certification the Secretary of the Treasury shall pay quarterly 
to the custodian for vocational education of each State the moneys to which 
it is entitled under the provisions of this Act. The moneys so received by the 
custodian for vocational education for any State shall be paid out on the 
requisition of the State board as reimbursement for expenditures already 
incurred to such schools as are approved by said State board and are entitled 
to receive such moneys under the provisions of this Act. 

Sec. 15. That whenever any portion of the fund annually allotted to any 
State has not been expended for the purpose provided for in this Act, a sum 
equal to such portion shall be deducted by the Federal board from the next suc¬ 
ceeding annual allotment from such fund to such State. 

Sec. 16. That the Federal Board for Vocational Education may withhold the 
allotment of moneys to any State whenever it shall be determined that such 
moneys are not being expended for the purposes and under the conditions of 
this Act. 

If any allotment is withheld from any State, the State board of such State 
may appeal to the Congress of the United States, and if the Congress shall not 
direct such sum to be paid it shall be covered into the Treasury. 

Sec. 17. That if any portion of the moneys received by the custodian for voca¬ 
tional education of any State under this Act, for any given purpose named in 
this Act, shall, by any action or contingency, be diminished or lost, it shall be 
replaced by such State, and until so replaced no subsequent appropriation for 
such education shall be paid to such State. No portion of any moneys appropri¬ 
ated under this Act for the benefit of the States shall be applied, directly or 
indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair of any building or 
buildings or equipment, or for the purchase or rental of lands, or for the support 
of any religious or privately owned or conducted school or college. 

Sec. 18. That the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall make an an¬ 
nual report to Congress, on or before December first, on the administration of 


56 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


this Act and shall include in such report the reports made by the State boards 
on the administration of this Act by each State and the expenditure of the 
money allotted to each State. 

Approved, February, 23, 1917. 


SECTION 2. 

[Public, No. 04, Sixty-fifth Congress.] 

[II. R. 5949.] 

AN ACT Making appropriations to supply urgent deficiencies in appropriations for the 
fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen, and prior fiscal years, 
on account of war expenses, and for other purposes. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That the following sums are appro¬ 
priated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to supply 
urgent deficiencies in appropriations for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, 
nineteen hundred and eighteen, and prior fiscal years, on account of war ex¬ 
penses, and for other purposes, namely: 

FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

The appropriation provided by section seven of the Act creating the Federal 
Board for Vocational Education, approved February twenty-third, nineteen hun¬ 
dred and seventeen, is also made available for printing and binding, law books, 
books of reference and periodicals, and postage on foreign mail. 

In any State the legislature of which met in nineteen hundred and seventeen 
and failed for any reason to accept the provisions of the vocational education 
Act, as provided in section five of said Act, if the governor of that State, so 
far as he is authorized to do so, shall accept the provisions of said Act ana 
designate or create a State board of not less than three members to act in 
cooperation with the Federal Board for Vocational Education and shall desig¬ 
nate the State treasurer as custodian for all moneys allotted to that State 
under said Act, the Federal board shall, if such legislature took no adverse 
action on the acceptance of said Act in nineteen hundred and seventeen, recog¬ 
nize such State board for the purposes of said Act until the legislature of that 
State meets in regular session in due course and has been in session sixty days. 
Approved, October 6, 1917. 


APPENDIX B. 

Legal Requirements Imposed by the Act Approved February 23, 1917, to 

Promote Vocational Education. 

[Public, No. 347, Sixty-fourth Congress.] 

i. upon the states. 

The State shall— 

( a) Accept, through the legislature, the provisions of the act. 

(b) Designate or create, through the legislature, a State board consisting 
of not less than three members having necessary power to cooperate with the 
Federal board in the administration of the provisions of the act. 

Note. —The State board of education, or other board having charge of the 
administration of public education in the State, or any State board having 




FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 57 

charge of the administration of any kind of vocational education in the State 
may, if the State so elect, be designated as the State board. 

Note. —If no adverse action was taken by State legislature in 1917, the 
governor may accept the provisions of the act, and designate or create a State 
board, and also appoint State treasurer as custodian for appropriations. Such 
board will be recognized by the Federal board until the legislature meets in 
due course and has been in session sixty days. 

(c) Appoint, through legislative authority, as custodian for appropriations 
allotted, its State treasurer, who shall receive and provide for the proper cus¬ 
tody and disbursements of all money paid to the State from Federal appro¬ 
priations. 

(d) Take advantage of at least the minimum amount appropriated for the 
training of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects. This 
must be done after June 30, 1920, in order to receive any appropriation for 
salaries of teachers, supervisors or directors of agricultural subjects. 

(e) Take advantage of at least the minimum amount appropriated for the 
training of teachers of trade, home economics and industrial subjects. This 
must be done after une 30, 1920, in order to receive any appropriation for 
salaries of teachers of trade, home economics and industrial subjects. 

Note. —Prior to June 30, 1920, the State may accept the benefits of any one 
or more of the respective funds appropriated by the act and may defer the 
acceptance of the benefits of any one or more of such funds. The State, how¬ 
ever, shall be required to meet only the conditions relative to the fund or funds 
benefits of which have been accepted. 

II. UPON THE FEDERAL BOARD. 

The Federal boord shall— 

(a) Elect annually one of its members as chairman, whose duty it shall be to 
carry out the rules, regulations, and decisions which the board may adopt. 

(b) Employ such assistants as may be necessary to carry out the provisions 
of the act. 

(c) Cooperate with State boards in the administration of the provisions of 
the act. 

(d) Make or cause to have made studies, investigations and reports, with 
particular reference to aiding the States in the establishment of vocational 
schools and classes and in giving instruction in agriculture, trades and industry, 
commerce and commercial pursuits, and home economics. 

Note. —Such studies, investigations, and reports shall include agriculture and 
agricultural processes and requirements upon agricultural workers; trades, 
industries, and apprenticeships; trade and industrial requirements upon indus¬ 
trial workers, and classification of industrial processes and pursuits; commerce 
and commercial pursuits and requirements upon commercial workers; home 
management, domestic science, and the study of related facts and principles; 
and problems of administration of vocational schools and of courses of study 
and instruction in vocational subjects. When the board deems it advisable, 
such studies, investigations, and reports concerning agriculture, for the pur¬ 
poses of agricultural education, may be made in cooperation with or through 
the Department of Agriculture; such studies, investigations, and reports con¬ 
cerning trades and industries,Tor the purposes of trade and industrial education, 
may be made in cooperation with or through the Department of Labor; such 
studies, investigations, and reports concerning commerce and commercial pur¬ 
suits, for the purposes of commercial education, may be made in cooperation 
with or through the Department of Commerce; such studies, investigations, and 



58 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


reports concerning the administration of vocational schools, courses of study, 
and instruction in vocational subjects, may be made in cooperation with or 
through the Bureau of Education. 

(e) Examine plans submitted by State boards and approve the same if found 
to be in conformity with the provisions and purposes of the act. 

(/) Annually ascertain whether the several States are using, or are prepared 
to use, the money received by them in accordance with the provisions of the act. 

(g) On or before January 1 of each year, certify to the Secretary of the 
Treasury each State which has accepted the provisions of the act and complied 
therewith, together with the amount which each State is entitled to receive 
under the provisions of the act. 

(h) Make an annual report to Congress on or before December 1st on the ad¬ 
ministration of the act, including therein the reports made by the State boards, 
and the expenditure of the money allotted to each State. 

III. UPON THE SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY. 

The Secretary of the Treasury shall pay quarterly to the custodian for voca¬ 
tional education of each State, upon certification by the Federal board, the 
moneys to which it is entitled under the provisions of the act. 

IV. UPON THE CUSTODIAN FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION-STATE TREASURER. 

The custodian for vocational education—State Treasurer—shall, on the requi¬ 
sition of the State board, pay out moneys received as reimbursements for ex¬ 
penditures already incurred to such schools as are approved by said State board 
and are entitled to receive such moneys under the provisions of the act. 

V. AS TO THE EXPENDITURE OF APPROPRIATIONS. 

Appropriations must— 

(a) Be devoted exclusively to the maintenance of teacher-training or to the 
payment of salaries of teachers, supervisors or directors of agricultural sub¬ 
jects, and of teachers of trade, home economics and industrial subjects, having 
the minimum qualifications set up by the State board with approval of Federal 
board. 

Note. —Cost of instruction supplementary to the instruction in subjects pro¬ 
vided for by the act, necessary to build a well-rounded course of training, shall 
be borne by the State and local communities, and no part of the cost thereof 
shall be borne out of appropriations made by the act. This does not apply 
to the maintenance of teacher-training. 

(&) Be met by equal appropriation from State. For each dollar of Federal 
money expended for salaries of teachers, supervisors or directors of agricul¬ 
tural subjects, or for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics and in¬ 
dustrial subjects or for the training of teachers of vocational subjects, the 
State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for such 
salaries or for training. 

(c) Be so expended that not more than 60 per cent nor less than 20 per cent 
of the money appropriated under the act for training of teachers of vocational 
subjects to any State for any year shall be used for (1) the preparation of 
teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, (2) the preparation 
of teachers, etc., of trade and industrial subjects, (3) the preparation of teachers 
of home economics subjects. 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


59 


( d ) Be so expended that not more than 20 per cent of the money appropri¬ 
ated for the payment of salaries of teachers of trade, home economics and in¬ 
dustrial subjects for any year shall be used for the salaries of teachers of home 
economics subjects. 

(e) Be withheld whenever it shall be determined that such moneys are not 
being expended for the purposes and under the conditions of the act. 

Note. —If allotment is withheld from any State, State board may appeal to 
Congress, and if the Congress shall not direct such sum to be paid it shall be 
covered into the Treasury. 

(/) Be decreased whenever any portion of the fund annually allotted to any 
State shall not have been expended for the purpose provided for in the act. 
This decrease shall be equal to such unexpended portion. 

(g) If any portion of the moneys received by the custodian for vocational edu¬ 
cation of any State under the act, for any given purpose named in the act, shall, 
by any action or contingency, be diminished or lost, such portion shall be re¬ 
placed, and until so replaced no subsequent appropriation for such education 
shall be paid to the State. 

( h ) Not be applied, directly or indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preser¬ 
vation, or repair of any building or buildings or equipment, or for the purchase 
or rental of lands, or for the support of any religious or privately owned or 
conducted school or college. 

VI. UPON THE STATE BOARDS. 

A. The State boards designated or created as above required shall as a 
general prerequisite— 

(a) Prepare plans showing— 

1. The kinds of vocational education for which it is proposed that the 

appropriation shall be used. 

2. The kinds of schools and equipment. 

3. The courses of study. 

4. The methods of instruction. 

5. The qualifications of teachers. 

( b ) Submit such plans to Federal board for approval. 

( c ) Make an annual report to the Federal board on or before September 1 
of each year on the work done in the State and the receipts and expenditures 
of money under the provisions of the act. 

B. In order to secure the benefits of the fund for agricultural education the 
State boards shall include in the general plan— 

(a) Qualifications of supervisors and directors. 

(b) Plans for the training of teachers. 

(c) Plans for the supervision of agricultural education as provided in section 
10, namely: “That any State may use the appropriation for agricultural pur¬ 
poses, or any part thereof allotted to it, under the provisions of this act, for the 
salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, either for 
the salaries of teachers of such subjects in schools or classes or for the salaries 
of supervisors or directors of such subjects under a plan of supervision for the 
State to be set up by.the State board with the approval of the Federal Board 
for Vocational Education.’’ 

(d) That education shall be that which is under public supervision or control. 

(e) That the controlling purpose of the education is to fit for useful employ¬ 
ment. 


60 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


(/) That the education shall be less than college grade. 

(g) That education is designed to meet the needs of persons over 14 years 
of age, who have entered upon or are preparing to enter upon the work of the 
farm or of the farm home. 

( h ) That the State or local community, or both, shall provide the necessary 
plant and equipment determined upon by the State board, with the approval of 
the Federal board, as the minimum requirement for such education in the 
schools and classes in the State. 

(«) That the amount expended for the maintenance of such education in any 
school or class receiving the benefit of Federal appropriation shall be not less 
annually than the amount fixed by the State board, with the approval of the 
Federal board as the minimum for such schools or classes in the State. 

( j ) That such schools shall provide for directed or supervised practice in 
agriculture, either on a farm provided for by the school or other farm, for at 
least six months per year. 

(k) That the teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects shall 
have at least the minimum qualifications determined for the State by the State 
board, with the approval of the Federal board. 

C. In order to secure the benefits of the fund for education in trade, home 
economics and industrial subjects, the State boards shall include in the general 
plan— 

(a) That education will be given in schools or classes under public supervi¬ 
sion or control. 

(&) That the controlling purpose of the education shall be to fit for useful 
employment. 

(c) That the education shall be of less than college grade. 

(d) That the education shall be designed to meet the needs of persons over 
14 years of age who are preparing for a trade or industrial pursuit or who have 
entered upon the work of a trade or industrial pursuit. 

( e ) That the State or local community, or both, shall provide the necessary 
plant and equipment determined upon by the State board, with the approval of 
the Federal board as the minimum requirement in such State for education for 
any given trade or industrial pursuit. 

(/) That the total amount expended for the maintenance of such education 
in any school or class receiving the benefit of such appropriation shall be not 
less annually than the amount fixed by the State board, with the approval of the 
Federal board, as the minimum for such schools or classes in the State. 

(g) That schools or classes giving instruction to persons who have not 
entered upon employment shall require that at least one-half of* the time 
of such instruction be given to practical work on a useful or productive basis, 
such instruction to extend over not less than nine months per year and not less 
than 30 hours per week. 

( h ) That at least one-third of the sum appropriated to any State for 
salaries shall be applied to part-time schools or classes for workers over 14 
years of age who have entered upon employment, and such subjects in a part- 
time school or class may mean any subject given to enlarge the civic or voca¬ 
tional intelligence of such workers over 14 and less than 18 years of age. 

( i ) That part-time schools or classes shall provide for not less than 144 
hours of class-room instruction per year. 

( j ) That evening industrial schools shall fix the age of 16 years as a 
minimum entrance requirement and shall confine instruction to that which 
is supplemental to the daily employment. 



FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


61 


(k) That the teachers of any trade or industrial subject in any State shall 
have at least the minimum qualifications for teachers of such subject deter¬ 
mined upon for such State by the State board, with the approval of the Federal 
board. 

Note. —By proviso in the Act it is declared that for cities and towns of less 
than 25,000 population, the State board, with approval of the Federal board, 
may modify conditions as to length of course .and hours of instruction per 
week for schools and classes giving instruction to those who have not entered 
upon employment, in order to meet the particular needs of such cities and towns. 

D. In order to secure the benefits of the fund for the training of teachers, 
the State boards shall include in the general plan— 

(a) That training shall be carried on under the supervision of the State 
board. 

(b) That training will be given in schools or classes under public supervision 
or control. 

(c) That training will be given only to persons who have had adequate 
vocational experience or contact in the line of work for which they are pre¬ 
paring themselves as teachers, supervisors or directors, or who are acquiring 
such experience or contact as a part of their training. 

( d) That the State board, with the approval of the Federal board, shall 
establish minimum requirements for such experience or contact for teachers, 
supervisors or directors of agricultural subjects and for teachers of trade, 
industrial and home economics subjects. 



Table 1 .— Annual grants by the Federal Government for vocational education under the Smith-Hughes Act approved Feb. 23, 1917. 


62 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATIONc 


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FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 


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FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 


67 


Table 4. —Quarterly payments to the States for the fiscal year 1917-18 of appro¬ 
priations available under the Smith-IIuglies Act for the promotion of voca¬ 
tional education. 


Quarterly payments for the fiscal year 1917-18, ending June 30. 


Region or State. 


I. 


II. 


United States.... 
Regions: 

I. North Atlantic.. 
II. Southern. 

III. East Central. 

IV. West Central_ 

V. Pacific. 

North Atlantic: 

Maine.. 

New Hampshire. 

Vermont. 

Massachusetts. 

Rhode Island. 

Connecticut. 

New York. 

New Jersey. 

Pennsylvania. 

I >elaware. 

Maryland. 

Southern: 

Virginia. 

North Carolina. 

South Carolina. 

Georgia. 

Florida. 

Tennessee. 

Alabama. 

Mississippi. 

Arkansas. 

Louisiana. 

Texas. 

East Central: 

West Virginia. 

Ohio. 

Kentucky. 

Michigan... 

Indiana. 

Wisconsin. 

Illinois. 

Minnesota. 

Iowa. 

Missouri. 

West Central: 

North Dakota. 

South Dakota. 

Nebraska. 

Kansas. 

Oklahoma. 

Montana. 

Wyoming. 

Colorado. 

New Mexico. 

Pacific: 

Idaho. 

Utah. 

Arizona. 

Nevada. 

Washington. 

Oregon. 

California. 


III. 


IV. 


V. 


Agriculture: For salaries 
of teachers, supervi¬ 
sors and directors. 


Allotment 
on basis of 
popula¬ 
tion. 


8125,000.00 


18,825.77 
45,489. 28 
40,591.95 
13,822.11* 
6, 270. 88* 

914.22* 
444. 47 
4 7 3. 70 
610. 5 7 * 
45. 481 
291. 08* 
4, 883. 90 
1,595.67* 
7,686. 19* 
266. 56* 
1,613.90* 

4,014.99* 

4, 781. 80* 
3,268. 99 

5, 244. 47* 
1,351.44* 
4,416. 87* 
4,477. 46* 
4,026.94* 

3.474. 60* 
2,937. 94 
7,493. 68 

2,514.94* 
5,324. 28 
4,393. 37 
3,756. 74* 
3,943. 96* 
3,367. 701 

5.475. 45* 
3,103. 95* 
3,912. 74* 
4,79a 78* 

1,301.49* 
1,284.76* 
2,232. 47* 
3,032. 38* 
3,386. 60* 
614. 581 
260.25 
998. 46* 
711.08* 

647. 671 
507. 65* 
357. 39 
173.53 
1,358.84* 
926. 32* 
2,299. 47 


Special 
allotment to 
guarantee 
$5,000. 


$11,756.94* 


$125,000.00 


5,703.90* 


2,415. 61* 
3,637. 42* 

335.77* 
805.53 
7 7 6.30 
639.42* 
1,204.51* 
958.91* 


983.43* 


635.41* 
989. 75 
251. 53* 
538.91* 

602. 32* 
742.34* 
892.61 
1,076. 47 


323. 67* 


Trade, home economics, 
and industry: For sal¬ 
aries of teachers. 


Allotment 
on basis of 
popula¬ 
tion. 


58,917.31 
13,104.19 
39,398. 76* 
5,594. 27* 
7,985. 46 

1,127.40 
753.97* 
499. 33 
9,237. 39* 
1,550.67* 
2,955.14* 
21,23 7 . 58* 
5,636. 98* 
13,686. 49* 
286.94* 
1,945. 36* 

1,408. 43* 
941. 28* 
664.51* 
1,592. 04 k 
64 7 .51* 
1,303. 56* 
1,094. 85* 
612. 73* 
599. 04* 
1,467. 51* 
2,772. 67* 

674. 59* 
7, 877. 15 
1,641.67* 
3.922. 23* 
3,380. 74* 
2,968. 38* 
10,276.48 
2,513.14* 
2,009. 98 
4,134. 37 

186. 90* 
226. 61* 
918. 76 
1,459.45* 
946. 25* 
394.34 
127. 74* 
1,196. 55* 
137. 64* 

206. 59* 
511. 12* 
186. 97* 
39. 50* 
1,789.71* 
907. 55* 
4,343. 99 


Special 
allotment to 
guarantee 
$5,000. 


$16,111.22* 


2,332.34* 
2, 940. 04 * 
575.40* 
5,865.18 
4,39a 24* 

122.60 
496. 02* 
750.67 


y 


963.05* 


308.71* 
585. 48* 


602. 48* 


155.14* 
637. 

650. 


575.40* 


Teacher training: For 
salaries of teachers 
and maintenance of 
teacher training. 


Allotment 
on basis of 
popula¬ 
tion. 


Special 
allotment to 
guarantee 
$5,000. 


$125,000.00 


$11,028.51 


1,063. 09* 
1,023. 38* 
331. 24 


303. 74* 
855.66 
1,122. 25* 
53. 44* 
1,112.35* 

1,043. 40* 
73a 87* 
1,063.02* 
1,210.49* 


342. 44* 


37,327.97* 
30,543.59* 
40,041.29* 
10,024.97 
7,062.16* 

1,012. 60* 
587.30* 
485.53 
4,591. S4* 
740.12* 
1,520.54* 
12,431. 11 
3,460. 73* 
10,455. 33 
275.97 
1,766.87* 

2, 812. 07 
3,009.41 
2,067. 03 
3, 55a 88 
1,026.58* 
2,980.08* 
2,916.39* 
2,451.29 
2,147. 57* 
2,259.33* 
5,314.94* 

1,665. 62* 
6,502. 42* 
3,123. 46* 

3, 833. 12 
3,681.03* 
3,183.42 
7,691. 12* 
2, 831. 29* 
3,034. 62* 
4,492.16 

787.11* 
796.43* 
1,626.19* 
2,306. 48 
2,260. 38* 
512. 94* 
199. 09* 
1,089.88 
446. 44* 

444.11* 
509. 25* 
27a 74* 
111.68 
1,557.69* 
917. 66* 
3,243. 01* 


3,148. 46 
223.41* 

'3,668.09* 
3,988. 54* 

, 237.39* 
662. 69* 
764.47 


509. 87* 


974.03 


223.41* 


462.88 
453. 56 


737.05* 
1,050.90* 
160.12 
803. 55* 

805. 88* 
740. 74* 
971. 25* 
1,13a 32 


332.33} 










































































































































































INDEX. 


Acceptance “ in sweeping phrase,” 34- 
35. 

Administrative regions, 6, 8-9. 

Age of pupils, 23-24, 42, 43. 

Agents, regional, 8-9, 22. 

Agricultural education, 36-41; super¬ 
vision, 21. 

All-day schools, 42. 

Allotments. See Grants. 

Annual agreement desirable, 18. 
Appropriations. See Grants. 

Assistant directors, 8. 

Backward children, 17, 30, 40. 

Blanks for financial reports, 21. 

Boys’ and girls’ club work, leader of, 
38. 

Certification of State for allotment, 23. 
Certification of teachers, 22, 33-34. 
Colleges, 36. 

Commercial education, 36. 
Communities, size, 39. 

Conditions governing grants, 14. 
Conferences, State, 10. 

Control, public, 9, 25. 

Cooperation between States and Fed¬ 
eral board, 7, 12, 17-18. 

Course of study, 30-32, 35. 

Custodian of funds, 13, 58. 

Daily employment, instruction supple¬ 
mental to, 45, 47. 

Defective children, 17, 30, 40. 
Deficiency bill, extract from, 56. 
Delinquent children, 17, 30, 40. 
Director, 8. 

Director of vocational education in 
State, 37. 

Distribution of funds, 13-16, 29-30, 39. 
Domestic science. See Home eco¬ 
nomics. 

Equipment, 19-20. 

Evening schools, 43, 45, 47. 


Federal agents, 8-9, 22. 

Federal aid, nature, 7. 

Federal Board for Vocational Educa¬ 
tion, 2, 7-8, 56, 57-58; cooperation 
with States, 7, 12, 17-18. 

Federal funds, acceptance “ in sweeps 
ing phrase,” 34-35; distribution, 13- 
14, 29-30, 39; matched by local 
funds, 10, 11, 25-26, 58; State funds 
for same purpose as, 40. 

Financial reports, 20. 

Fiscal year, reports for, 20. 

Funds. See Federal funds; Private 
funds; State funds. 

Governor, acceptance of act by, 13. 

Grants, 62-67; summary of, 11; use in 
accordance with terms of act, 13-16, 
22 . 

Half-time instruction, home economics, 
46. See also Part-time schools. 

Headquarters of regions, 6, 8-9. 

Home economics, 45, 46-48; omission 
from title of act, 47-48; time allot¬ 
ment, 31, 47. 

Hours, definition, 43; per week, 47. 

Incorrigible children, 17, 30, 40. 

Industrial education, 42-45. 

Investigations made by Federal board, 
18. 

Land-grant colleges, 36, 40-41. 

Legal requirements, 56-61. 

Length of school year, 42-43. 

Map, 6. 

Matching of Federal money by local 
money, 10, 11, 25-26, 58. 

Mixed classes, 23-24. 

Modification of policies, 20. 

Morrill Act, 36, 41. 

Negro schools, 30. 

Nelson Act, 36, 40. 

69 





L. 0 so & 

■/hr 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


MEMBERS. 


David F. Houston, Chairman , 

Secretary of Agriculture. 
William C. Redfield, 

Secretary of Commerce. 
William B. Wilson, 

Secretary of Labor. 

P. P. Claxton, 

Commissioner of Education. 


.Tames P. Munkoe, 

Manufacture and Commerce. 
Charles A. Greathouse, 

A griculture. 

Arthur E. Holder, 

Labor. 


EXECUTIVE STAFF. 


C. A. Prosser. Director. 


Layton S. Hawkins, 

A ssistant Director 
Agricultural 


for 

Educa tion. 


Lewis H. Carius, 

Assistant Director for 


Indu striat Educa tion. 


Cheesman A. Herrick, 

Special Agent for 

Commercial Education. 


Josephine T. Berry, 

Assistant Director for Home 

Economics Education. 
Charles H. Winslow, 

Assistant Director for Research. 


All communications should be addressed to 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education Washington, D. C. 

( 2 ) 


D* of D. 

MArt 18 1918 









TRAINING CONSCRIPTED MEN FOR SERVICE AS 
RADIO AND BUZZER OPERATORS. 


FOREWORD. 

At the request of the United States Army the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education has undertaken to aid the Army to secure the 
proper training of conscripted men as radio and buzzer operators 
(International Code) before they are called into service in the second 
and following drafts. This bulletin is issued for the purpose of sup¬ 
plying information to school authorities who will undertake this 
work as a patriotic duty. Additional information will be supplied 
by the Federal board from time to time as this work progresses. 

In order to furnish the main facts concerning this training in as 
direct a manner as possible they are presented in the form of answers 
to specific questions. 

ENROLLMENT. 

Who may be admitted to classes? 

(а) Only conscripted men due for the second and following drafts 
should be admitted. 

(б) Only conscripted men should be admitted who have passed a 
physical examination and are certain to be called. 

(e) One of the chief purposes of the class should be to determine 
early what men are not fit to become successful operators, in order 
that they may be dropped at once. 

(d) Conscripted men from all occupations and professions who 
desire this training are to be admitted to the class if properly quali¬ 
fied. Most of these men will of course return to the practice of those 
occupations and professions at the close of the war. This training is 
for war service only. 

(e) For fear of a misunderstanding, it is again stated that these 
classes should not be open to anyone who is not due for service in the 
Army. This will exclude all such persons as: Girls and women, per¬ 
sons under military age, persons unconscripted, persons conscripted 
but unable to pass a physical examination, persons exempted for any 
cause, and persons who are seeking free training along commercial 
lines for service with railroads, telegraph companies, and private 
concerns. 

What conscripted men, if any, should be given preference in registration? 

If the membership of a class is l'mited, preference should be given 
to men due for the second draft, and in successive order to men due 
for the third, fourth, and succeeding drafts. The plan is to offer 

44207—18 ( 3 ) 



4 


new classes as soon as the work of one class is completed and the 
members of that class due for service have been given their cer¬ 
tificates. The aim is to enable the school in any community through 
continuing classes to train successive groups of men as far as possi¬ 
ble in the same order as that in which they are due for service. As 
long, however, as there are vacancies in any class, conscripted men 
should be admitted irrespective of their serial number for the draft. 
Wherever necessary, waiting lists should be compiled of men who 
are to be notified when there is a vacancy in the class. It is believed 
that the best way in which to conduct this work would be to deal 
with students individually, issuing certificates to men as soon as 
they reach certain standards of efficiency and supplying their places 
with others at once. 

Where the physical examination of all men subject to draft in 
a community has already been made by the exemption board, the 
school should confine the membership of these classes to those who 
have successfully passed this physical examination. Where this 
physical examination has not taken place and can not be secured at 
once, the school authorities should have a tentative physical exami¬ 
nation made through the volunteer service of a local physician, who 
can always readily be secured for this purpose. On the basis of his 
judgment as to whether or not the conscripted men who are appli¬ 
cants for admission to the school will be able to pass successfully the 
official physical examination to be held at a later date, the school 
authorities should determine whether or not these men are to be 
admitted to the class. The general principle to be followed is that 
it is a waste of time and effort to train men for this work who are 
not able to set up a presumption that they will be called and accepted 
on the second or a succeeding draft. 

While preference should be given to novices over those who have 
reached the required standard of sending and receiving 20 words 
per minute, yet wherever possible the latter should be encouraged 
to continue the course after this standard has been reached. Indeed, 
some of these superior students might well be utilized as assist¬ 
ant instructors, helping the class and gaining added experience and 
proficiency. 

EXTENT OF COURSE. 

How long should the classes run? 

The classes should begin at once and should continue until all 
those seeking training have been prepared or the emergency no 
longer exists. The length of time any student must attend in order 
to attain proficiency depends on a number of factors. Among these 
are: The number of hours per day or per week the class is in session, 
the ability and application of the man, and the standard of pro- 
ficency which he is expected to reach before receiving a certificate. 


5 


It will be better to deal with students individually and consider 
the class as a continuing process, issuing certificates to men for 
proficiency at the end of short or long periods of attendance. It is 
obvious that the length of time the student attends will vary with 
the individual. 

As an aid to schools in estimating the average length of time 
usually necessary to prepare the ordinary man to send and receive 
a minimum of 20 words of five letters each, this period has been 
estimated by Army authorities, based on experience, to be about 
200 hours. The problem before the schools is how to secure 200 hours 
of instruction for the ordinary man in the class. 

It is recognized that some students will be able to reach the desired 
standard in less than 200 hours; others will require more than 200 
hours. The school should plan its program, however, on the theory 
that the normal member of the class will require approximately 200 
hours to reach the standard. 

Experience seems to show that the best way to deal with this mat¬ 
ter is this: A large room should be secured in which all equipment 
is placed and all the instruction given. Where numbers to be taught 
are large, additional instructors should be secured for service in 
this room. This would be better than to organize separate classes 
in other rooms. 

The instruction in this room should be carried on six nights per 
week. Students should be dealt with individually and should be 
expected to attend at least eight hours of instruction each week. 
This will be necessary in order to give the 200 hours within the time 
when most of these men will be needed for actual service. 

Advantage will be gained by having the equipment available for 
use by students in daylight hours, particularly on Saturday after¬ 
noons and Sunday mornings, so that they may gain speed by more 
practice in sending and receiving. All students should be encour¬ 
aged to purchase a key, an ordinary bell buzzer, and a dry cell, so 
that they may hasten their own preparation by practice at home. 

OBTAINING STUDENTS. 

How may conscripted men best be informed of the opportunity for train¬ 
ing? 

The first step for the school authorities is to get the names of the 
conscripted men of the community. An official list of these men can 
be secured from the local examination boards. Where this list can 
not be obtained officially, it can readily be secured from the file of the 
local newspapers. A circular should be sent to these conscripted 
men by the school authorities asking them to appear for registra¬ 
tion for the course and furnishing all necessary information with 
regard to what it is proposed to offer them and why it is being offered. 


In addition, there should be extensive publicity work through the 
local trade-unions and all commercial and civic organizations. For 
example, copies of the circular letter addressed to conscripted men 
should be sent to the newspapers, together with a statement of the 
courses of study to be given at the school. Similar material should 
be sent to various organizations, and, in addition, individual personal 
effort should be extended to secure the interest of the editors of 
papers, newspaper writers, public men, and all who are in a position 
to disseminate information either by word of mouth or by posting 
notices in public places. One of the most effective ways to get in¬ 
formation of this kind to workmen is by means of a circular or blank 
of some kind posted just above the time clock or on the bulletin board 
in the factory. 

It is believed, however, that the first step is to send out circular let¬ 
ters to the men. If this brings desired results within a reasonable 
time, it may not be necessary to resort to other kinds of publicity, as 
suggested above; but at the same time the circular letter is sent, it 
should also be sent to the newspapers. 

EQUIPMENT. 

What equipment is needed to do the work ? 

On the presumption that alternating current is available, the fol¬ 
lowing equipment for the production of powerful buzzer signals is 
recommended: One keyless lamp socket, one 16-candlepower lamp, 
1 telegraph key, one 20-ohm sounder, sufficient lamp cord to reach the 
nearest alternating-current supply, and a plug for making connection 
to an outlet or fixture socket.. 

The lamp is used in series with the key and sounder. The set 
screws which limit the vibration of the sounder should be screwed 
down until the lever vibrates and produces a buzz, when the key is 
closed. A good note for reception is easily produced after a little 
manipulation of these screws. A diagram of connections follows: 


The sounder should 
be screwed down to 
the ta6le, or the whole 
set attached to a board 
removable at will. 


To AXJIf fit fixture 
-'©*-- 



c 

j> n 

9 

u 
















7 


()n<* set of apparatus such as that described should be provided 
for every six students. In training a class entirely composed of 
beginners one of these sets is sufficient for about 25 students until they 
are able to copy about 10 words per minute, when they should be 
separated into groups of six, each group to be supplied with one set 
of apparatus as described. 

What will the equipment cost ? 

The outfit described above will serve for the training of six men 
at one time and will cost about $5. To train a class of 50 men will 
therefore cost approximately $40, and to train a class of 100 men 
about $80. Where two successive groups of men of 50 each use the 
equipment for the entire year, the cost would be about $40 for 100 
men. In general, it might be said that the approximate cost of the 
equipment for carrying on the work would be a dollar a man for 
straight class enrollment. Where successive groups of men were 
taught the cost of equipment per man would be reduced to 50 cents 
or less. It must also be remembered that the depreciation in the 
value of the apparatus used is practically negligible. 

Alternative plan if alternating current is not available? 

As the training of both buzzer and radio operators necessitates 
training in the reception of a buzz and not the familiar click and 
back click of a telegraph sounder operated by direct current, it is 
recommended that if a source of alternating current be not available 
the following apparatus be installed: One telegraph key, one ordi¬ 
nary bell buzzer, one or two dry cells, sufficient annunciator wire to 
connect all the apparatus in series as shown in the following dia¬ 
gram : 

Bell buzzer. 



If desired, at the beginner’s table several buzzers may be operated 
in series by one sending key. As the bell buzzer does not produce 
as great a volume of sound as the sounder connected to an alternating 
current supply, one set of bell buzzer apparatus should be procured 
for each four students. Bought at retail, these bell buzzer sets should 










8 


cost about $2.50 each. In general they are not considered as satis 
factory as the sounder used with the alternating current. 

Where to get the equipment? 

The cost is so slight, as compared with the equipment for teaching 
any other mechanical or technical work, that it is assumed the schools 
will be more than willing to secure this equipment at their own ex¬ 
pense or on a loan from local telegraph and telephone companies. 
It is believed that wherever possible, however, the schools should 
purchase their own equipment and thus secure prompt service. 

Wherever school authorities find it difficult to secure the equip¬ 
ment described above they should notify the Federal Board for Voca¬ 
tional Education, which will endeavor to assist them in securing it. 

COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 

This is the same for all operators as far as the work in these pre¬ 
paratory schools is concerned. Its object is the production of an 
operator who can receive and send 20 words a minute on some form 
of buzzer. The operator’s further instruction will be carried on after 
he joins the Signal Corps organization to which assigned at the can¬ 
tonment. 

What is the method of instruction ? 

The beginner is required to learn the code by memorizing the 
first 5 letters of the alphabet and then writing them repeatedly; 
then the second 5 thereafter, writing the total first 10, and so on 
until the alphabet is completely mastered. It has been found that 
the majority of the students learn the alphabet in this manner within 
periods assigned during the school hours of two or three days. After 
the student has, well memorized the alphabet, he is then started at 
what is known as the beginner’s receiving table, or at one of the 
several tables within earshot of the master table, which is provided 
with one complete buzzer sounder set. The instructor manipulates 
the key at this table. Twenty-five students are usually grouped at 
the tables around the instructor, so as to be able to copy all he sends. 
From the very first they should be required to write down in pencil 
all letters, words, etc., sent by the instructor. By this method the 
student gets his first impression of the telegraphic characters from 
the sending of an expert telegrapher, and he thus is quickly impressed 
with the correct sound of each of the letters of the alphabet rather 
than with the sound which he or some other beginner would make if 
attempting to send. In addition, he begins the coordination of hand 
and mind, which later results in his automatically reducing to writ¬ 
ing the sound which he hears. 


9 


I he instructor should always make the individual letters as fast 
as he would make them if he were actually sending 20 words a 
minute, but the pauses between letters should be suited to the speed 
of the student. Students are permitted to “break” the sender by 
calling vocally for a repetition. Tables for practice at all speeds 
are to be gathered in the same room, both to give the instructor, if 
there be only one, a chance to supervise all the w r ork, and in every 
case to accustom the student to concentrate his attention upon the 
signals from his own receiver, regardless of the sounds produced 
by other instruments in the same vicinity. As soon as the students 
are able to copy 10 words a minute they should be transferred to 
other tables accommodating six men each (five students and an 
instructor), and their speed is increased gradually by the process 
of sending to them just a little faster than they can receive. This 
produces excellent results in training operators in a short time. 
There thus should be in the same room the required number of tables 
to accommodate all the beginners with one set of apparatus for their 
instruction and at least one table to accommodate six students each 
for each speed of 10, 15, and 20 words, each table being provided 
with one set of apparatus. 

Instruction in sending is given after the student has progressed 
well with the w ork of receiving. Each student is allowed to progress 
from the primary to other tables as fast as his individual ability 
warrants. The senders are to be very carefully watched for incor¬ 
rect methods of holding the key as w T ell as for the correct formation 
of the characters, so that their faults may be immediately corrected. 

Schools which are already in possession of equipment superior to 
this minimum proposed for general use should, of course, avail them¬ 
selves of the facilities they may have, and every piece of equipment 
available should be utilized. But it is well to remember that the 
buzz, rather than the click of the sounder, is the sound to which the 
student’s ear should become accustomed. 

TEACHER. 


What kind of a teacher ? 

The International and not the Morse Code is to be taught. In 
addition to being able to teach this code, those persons to give the 
instruction should be preferred w T ho have the greatest amount of 
education and general intelligence. Particular preference should be 
given to those who have any experience whatever in teaching. 

Where can teachers be obtained ? 

They should be secured from the ranks of retired operators, the 
ranks of commercial operators and railway telegraphers, from ama- 


12 


What shall student do with certificate or statement of attendance ? 

He will be expected to take this with him to the cantonment when 
he is (allied, and to show it there as evidence of the work he has done 
in preparing for an occupation which the Army needs. 

RECORDS AND REPORTS. 

What records shall the school keep of these students ? 

The same records which they would keep for any other class of 
students going through the school. With this neither the Federal 
Board nor the United States Signal Corps is concerned, excepting 
in so far as it is necessary to report facts to the Federal Board on a 
schedule provided for this purpose. 

What report will the school he asked to make to the Federal Board regard¬ 
ing these students? 

The Army authorities will expect the Federal Board to supply 
information regarding the number of students attending these 
courses, so that the Army will be in a position to know how far they 
can rely upon these classes as a source of supply for trained men. It 
will also be necessary for the Army authorities to secure through the 
Federal Board information with regard to each one of these men 
who has taken the course of instruction. Blanks will be drafted by 
the Federal Board and sent to the schools for reporting enrollment 
and all other necessary facts. 

GUARANTIES TO STUDENTS. 

What assurance can he given the student that he will he assigned to radio 
and huzzer work in the service ? 

The Army needs 15,000 radio and buzzer operators. It is looking 
to the conscripted men trained in these schools as the main source of 
supply for these operators. Their names will be filed with the Army 
authorities at Washington, who will see to it that when they reach 
cantonments they will be assigned to radio or buzzer work. When 
the occupational census is taken at the cantonments, the fact that 
they have been trained as radio and buzzer operators, which they 
should state on their blanks, also insures their being assigned or de¬ 
tailed to the work for which they have made special preparation. 
Arrangements will be made by the Army authorities to furnish ad¬ 
vance information to the proper officers of the cantonments concern¬ 
ing these men. These men will also have the evidence of the certifi¬ 
cate or record of attendance upon classes, which they should be urged 
to carry with them to camp and present to the division Signal officer. 


13 


TOTAL NUMBER TO BE TAUGHT. 

How many students should the school undertake to train? 

It is intended to prepare no more conscripted men to be radio 
or buzzer operators than the Army needs, a total of 15,000 for the 
period ending with the fourth draft. Because of the uncertainty 
at the present time as to what the many different schools of the 
country will be able to accomplish, it is impossible to prorate this 
number either among different communities or among different 
schools. It may be possible to do this after the schools have reported 
their initial registration and the work is well under way. One 
should also remember that those who have shown themselves not fit 
to do the work are promptly to be eliminated from the training. 
It is therefore suggested that schools go forward with confidence and 
secure just as many men as they can for the first class or classes 
organized, and to organize as many classes as may be necessary to 
deal with this group. The understanding should always be that 
adjustment will be made with regard to the quota for the different 
schools and communities by the Federal Board as soon as reports 
have been gathered from all the schools as to the initial enrollment 
in the schools undertaking the work. 

FREE TUITION. 

Should tuition be free? 

It is the opinion of the Federal Board and of the Army authorities 
that every consideration requires free tuition for these men. Many 
of them are leaving home at great sacrifice; in fact, some are leaving 
home with a great deal of uncertainty as to how those behind them 
are to be supported. They are giving their all. It is believed that 
the schools of the country can afford to meet the slight cost, probably 
not more than $15 per capita, of preparing them to fight effectively 
for the Nation. Furthermore, if the tuition is free more students 
of the right kind will be attracted to the work. If a tuition fee be 
charged some of the men will undoubtedly feel that they ought not 
to be expected to bear the cost of the work when they have given 
themselves and are seeking to prepare properly for the Nation’s 
defense. 


SERVICE OF THE CLASSES TO CONSCRIPTED MEN. 

Of what benefit will attendance upon the class be to the student ? 

First of all he will be trained for some definite work in the Army. 
He can serve with the confidence that he is being used by his country 
to the greatest possible advantage. Unlike the ordinary recruit, he 
will enter the Army as a trained instead of an untrained man. While 


14 


he will go to the cantonment as a private, he may, when assigned as a 
radio or buzzer operator, advance to the rank of corporal or sergeant 
and a wage of from $36 to $51 monthly. In proportion as he shows 
his ability and interest rapid promotion will lie ahead of him into 
the position of master signal electrician, with a wage of $81 per 
month. 

Arrangements are under way by which the United States Signal 
Corps expects to give advance instruction to promising radio and 
buzzer operators after they reach the cantonments, fitting them to 
meet special demands in the service. Promising men who show un¬ 
usual ability in the groundwork training carried on by schools will 
be eligible for selection for this special training. 

SERVICE OF THE CLASSES TO THE COUNTRY. 

What service will these classes render to the Nation? 

These classes will serve at least five, ends: 

(a) They would attract many conscripted men to the idea of 
fitting themselves for the radio or buzzer service in the Army in 
which they are to serve in some capacity. 

(b) They would give these men a chance to prepare themselves in 
part at least before call to service is made. 

( c) They would sort out these men in a very effective way by 
dropping those unable to make satisfactory progress in the work. 

( d) They will give a good groundwork course, bringing the stu¬ 
dents to a point where under school (not, of course, under field) con¬ 
ditions they should be able to send and receive 20 words per minute 
in the International Morse Code. 

(e) It w r ould then be easily possible to secure these men for the 
Signal Corps as soon as they reach the cantonments, and either to 
complete their training there or to send them to specially well- 
equipped institutions near cantonments to complete their training. 


ADDITIONAL COPIES OF BULLETIN NO. 2 (CIKCULAli NO. 1 ) 
CAN BE OBTAINED FREE UPON APPLICATION TO 
THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
WASHINGTON. I). C. 



PUBLICATIONS OF THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCA¬ 
TIONAL EDUCATION. 


Annual Report for 1917 


Bulletin 

No. 

1 . 

Bulletin 

No. 

2. 

Bulletin 

No. 

3. 

Bulletin 

No. 

4. 

Bulletin 

No. 

5. 

Bulletin 

No. 

6. 

Bulletin No. 

7. 

Bulletin No. 

8. 

Bulletin No. 

9. 

Bulletin 

No. 

10. 

Bulletin No. 

11. 

Bulletin No. 

12. 


Training Conscripted Men for Service as Radio and 
Buzzer Operators in the United States Army 
(International Code). 

Emergency Training in Shipbuilding—Evening and 
Part-Time Classes for Shipyard Workers. 

Mechanical and Technical Training for Conscripted 
Men (Air Division, U. S. Signal Corps). 

Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and 
Sailors. 

Training of Teachers for Occupational Therapy 
for the Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and 
Sailors. 

Emergency War Training for Motor-Truck Drivers 
and Chauffeurs. 

Emergency War Training for Machine-Shop Occu¬ 
pations, Blacksmithing. Sheet-Metal Working and 
Pipe Fitting. 

Emergency War Training for Electricians, Tele¬ 
phone repairmen, Linemen and Cable Splicers. 

Emergency War Training for Gas-Engine, Motor- 
Car, and Motor-Cycle Repairmen. 

Emergency War Training for Oxy-Acetylene 
Welders. 

Emergency War Training for Airplane Mechanics— 
Engine Repairmen, Woodworkers. Riggers and 
Sheet-Metal Workers. 


( 15 ) 
























. 

* 








■ 




1 • ‘ ? 




































■ 



























BULLETIN No. 3 


Emergency Training in Shipbuilding 

Evening and Part-Time Classes for 
Shipyard Workers 


ISSUED BY THE 

FEDERAL k BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
WASHINGTON 


JANUARY, 1918 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1918 







,/hr 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


MEMBERS. 


David F. Houston, Chairman , 

Secretary of Agriculture. 
William C. Redfield, 

Secretary of Commerce. 

William B. Wilson, 

Secretary of Labor. 

P. P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education. 


James P. Munroe, 

Manufacture and Commerce. 
Charles A. Greathouse, 
Agriculture. 

Arthur E. Holder, 

Labor. 


executive staff. 

C. A. Prosser. Director. 


Layton S. Hawkins. 

Assistant Director for 

Agricultural Education. 
Lewis H. Carris, 

Assistant Director for 

Industrial Education. 
Cheesman A. Herrick, 

Special Agent for 

Commercial Education. 


Josephine T. Berry, 

Assistant Director for Home 

Economics Education. 
Charles H. Winslow, 

Assistant Director for Research. 


All communications should be addressed to 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C 


o. of a* 

FEB S 1913 





FOREWORD. 



* 


At the request of the United States Shipping Board the Federal 
Board for Vocational Education, beginning in November, 1917, 
made an occupational analysis of shipyard occupations and the 
demands upon the workers in these occupations. At the same 
time a study was made of the knowledge and skill possessed by 
workers experienced in other and kindred trades closely allied to 
shipyard occupations. The object of this investigation was to as¬ 
certain what training was needed by men who might be transferred 
from such kindred trades to employment at shipyards. 

The results of this investigation were charted and have been used 
by the Employment Department. of the Shipping Board in connec¬ 
tion with the campaign to secure large numbers of workers for 
service at the yards. This material has also been used by the Indus¬ 
trial Training Section of the Shipping Board at the Emergency 
Instructors Training Center at Newport News. Men detailed from 
the different shipyards have been sent to this center for training as 
directors of training at their respective yards. 

It was apparent that much valuable service could be rendered by 
evening and part-time classes operated by public or private schools 
at shipyard centers in the training of men already employed in the 
shipyard work. This bulletin has, therefore, been prepared for the 
information of State and local boards of education and for the officials 
of private schools and colleges in order that they may intelligently 
and rapidly urfdertake this work. Part I of the publication gives 
instruction and suggestions to school officials; Parts II and III, 
information with regard to shipbuilding in kindred trades and sug¬ 
gested courses of study for evening schools and classes. 

Parts II and III were written by Mr. Kenneth G. Smith, who 
made the study of shipyard and kindred occupations on which this 
bulletin is based, under the auspices of the Research Division of the 
Federal Board for Vocational Education. Special acknowledgment 
is made to Messrs. E. E. MacNary, Charles R. Allen and James E. 
Neary, of the Industrial Training Section of the United States Ship¬ 
ping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation. 










•1 

. 

, 





INTRODUCTION. 


SHIPBUILDING AT THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR. 

At the beginning of the war shipbuilding in the United States 
was at a low ebb. As a nation we had been building but few ships, 
whether of wood or steel, and consequently but a small number of 
men were trained in shipyard occupations. When the pressing need 
arose for building an enormous number of ships, there were not in 
the whole country enough men with sufficient knowledge of ship¬ 
yard industries to turn out 10 per cent of the necessary work. 

The program of the United States Shipping Board and Emergency 
Fleet Corporation calls for the delivery of a heavy tonnage of ship¬ 
ping during 1918. To carry out this program requires the recruit¬ 
ing of approximately 150,000 men for shipbuilding. These men 
can rapidly gain experience in the shipyards, but they can not 
secure the necessary skill and knowledge in the short time avail¬ 
able. It follows naturally that the men to be secured in this emer¬ 
gency are those whose previous training has given them some of 
the skill and knowledge required for a shipbuilding trade or for 
some special work in that trade. 

Congress has authorized the President to “construct and operate 
merchant ships’’ and the President has delegated his authority to 
the Shipping Board, which works through what is known as the 
Emergency Fleet Corporation. 

As a part of its work the Emergency Fleet Corporation has organ¬ 
ized the Industrial Training Section whose business it is to see that 
the men who build ships are trained to do their work as rapidly and 
effectively as possible. 

At the request of the United States Shipping Board, the Research 
Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education undertook a 
survey of occupations in the shipbuilding field. In its appeal to the 
board for assistance the Shipping Board stated: 

One of the chief emergency problems concerning our country to-day is to build 
ships rapidly. We can not win this war without ships and we can not build them 
until we have trained shipyard workers. Our shipyards are compelled by the situa¬ 
tion to undertake a large industrial training program, and many of them are in need 
of competent men to direct emergency training in the yards. 


5 



6 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


This bulletin attempts to point out how public and private schools 
in or near places where shipbuilding is carried on may, through 
evening or part-time classes, help in training men for employment 
at the yards. This work is emergency training for men employed 
in the shipyards and must meet the approval of and be carried on in 
cooperation with the directors of training of the United States 
Shipping Board and Emergency Fleet Corporation. It is distinct 
from all other evening and part-time work and should not be con¬ 
fused in any way with the general program of vocational education. 
This bulletin deals solely with emergency training classes for ship¬ 
builders. 


PART I. 


STATES AND SHIPBUILDING PLANTS CONCERNED. 

In comparison with the problem of training workers for occupa¬ 
tions in the Army, the problem of training shipyard workers is, 
geographically speaking, a narrow one. The States immediately 
concerned with this problem are those that border on the two oceans, 
on the Gulf of Mexico, and on the Great Lakes. This bulletin is 
issued solely for the information of States in which shipbuilding 
occupations are carried on. 1 

The problem of training shipyard workers has been taken up by 
the United States Shipping Board and the Emergency Fleet Corpora¬ 
tion under the direction and supervision of its Industrial Training 
Section. Training departments are being established in every ship¬ 
yard that is building ships for the Emergency Fleet Corporation. 
Each of these training departments is in charge of a director and has 
an instructing staff drawn from the shipbuilding industry. The 
Emergency Fleet Corporation proposes to reimburse the shipyards 
for operating these training departments, provided the instruction 
given meets the approval of its Industrial Training Section. 

As a part of the general scheme, emergency instructor training 
centers are being established. The first one to be put in operation 
is at Newport News, and men are sent to this center by shipbuilding 
concerns to be trained to serve as instructors. The Emergency 
Fleet Corporation is reimbursing the shipyards for the wages and 
living expenses of the men in training to the extent of $5 per day 
per man provided the course be satisfactorily completed. The 
present plan provides for the training of all the necessary instructors. 
When it is proposed to establish evening or part-time work in ship¬ 
building, cooperative relations should first be established with the 
director of training at the yard, approached through the shipyard 
management. 

SCHEME OF ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. 

Definite directions as to the organization and operation of the 
special supplementary classes—evening and part-time—in emer¬ 
gency shipbuilding are given in this bulletin. These directions are 

i Maine, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, 
Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas. California, Oregon, 
Washington, Minnesota, Michigan, Wisconsin, Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa. 


7 




8 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


for the guidance of State directors of vocational education. The 
courses of study are suggested courses only, and represent the opin¬ 
ions which the office of the Federal board has gathered as a result of 
its study. 

LOCATION OF CLASSES. 

Evening or part-time work can be carried on effectively and should 
be attempted only where the classes can be easily reached by the 
group which they are intended to serve. 

(а) Evening classes must be located where the workers live. 

(б) Part-time classes must be located where the workers are employed. 

When evening classes are conducted in schoolhouses, they should 
be located in the neighborhood where the students live. If part- 
time classes are to be established in schoolhouses, they should be in 
close proximity to the shipyard. Part-time classes can be con¬ 
veniently established inside the yard, but evening classes can be 
so located only when the workers live in the immediate neighborhood 
of the yard. 

KIND OF WORK TO BE GIVEN. 

During the present emergency the question is not simply what 
can be done, but what can be done best. Three conditions must be 
recognized at the outset: 

1. The emergency training of men in the shipbuilding trades is 
distinct from the training now being given in other industries or 
for the Army, for the reasons that: (a) Emergency courses for men 
in the shipbuilding trades are supplementary to the main program 
of yard instruction now carried on by the United States Shipping 
Board through its directors of training; ( b ) such courses, though 
important in peace time, are of relatively less importance in war 
when large numbers of men must be trained quickly. 

2. Under present emergency conditions, leisure-time or evening 
courses are more desirable than part-time courses because during 
daylight working hours the men are needed on the job. 

3. Part-time courses for apprentices are not a part of the emer¬ 
gency program, because apprentices are a future and not an imme¬ 
diate asset, and because, further, they are relatively unimportant 
numerically. This does not mean that apprentice training should be 
discontinued. 

To carry out such a program effectively, an advisory board repre¬ 
senting employers and employees from the cooperating yard and 
the school board will be of great value. Such a board can be of 
assistance in determining what courses should be given, in securing 
proper quarters, and in inducing employers of labor to allow the 
use of machines and equipment for purposes of instruction. So far 
as the courses given for men employed in the shipbuilding trades 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


9 


are concerned, they should meet the approval of the director of 
training at the yard and, by agreement of all parties and interests 
concerned, should be recognized as rendering a service essential to 
the scheme established for the emergency training of shipbuilders. 

CLASSES OF MEN TO BE TRAINED. 

A complete program for the training of shipbuilders must under 
the present emergency conditions deal with three distinct classes 
of men: 

I. Those who follow a shipyard trade. 

II. Those who have a complete, or nearly complete, knowledge of some trade 
allied to a shipyard trade and who can be trained over into a shipyard 
trade. 

III. Those who have no knowledge or experience to serve as a conversion basis. 

The most promising field for supplementary work is Group I in 
trade-extension classes. These men have a large fund of trade expe¬ 
rience on which supplementary instruction may be based. In other 
words, Group I is a class in which there is the largest opportunity for 
technical training in evening classes and which offers, moreover, the 
largest return for time and money spent. 

Less effective work can be done with Group II in trade-conversion 
classes , because these men will in most cases be recruited from other 
trades which are either slack or not essential to the successful prose¬ 
cution of the war, and will be most effectively trained on the job in 
the yard. 

No supplementary work with Group III should be attempted for 
the reason that under emergency conditions this group can be trained 
only for shipyard jobs in which the technical content is relatively 
low and the character of which is such that effective training can be 
given only in the yard in what may be called initiatory classes. 

Each course should meet these conditions: 

(1) The instruction should be of such a character that it can 
be given better off than on the job, as is the case with 
technical instruction. 

(2^ Effective teaching conditions off the job should be estab¬ 
lished. 

(3) The course should meet the approval of the local training 
department of the yard, and it should be agreed by all 
parties concerned that it is work which can not be done 
or is not being done by the local training department. 

In other words, the course given by the school must dovetail with 
the plan of training at the shipyards so as to furnish, together with 
the shipyard training, a well-rounded course of instruction as far as 
mechanical and technical skill and knowledge for the particular job 
are concerned. 


33702—11 


-2 


10 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


WHAT KINDS OF CLASSES ARE TO BE ORGANIZED? 

The first consideration is the need of the shipyards for some form 
of supplementary training which can be learned only by close coop¬ 
eration between the local authorities and the director of training at 
the plant. The second consideration is the manner in which students 
are to be secured. They may be secured either by direct assignment 
or personal solicitation of a group by the training department, or on 
an individual basis through advertising. The third consideration is 
whether the course shall be a trade-extension or a trade-conversion 
course. 

It must always be remembered that any instruction must be sup¬ 
plementary to the training in the yard itself and that it should be 
given either to men proficient in the shipyard trades and seeking 
promotion or to men from allied or corresponding trades employed 
in the shipyard trades who wish to become effective workmen in as 
short a time as possible. To determine the instruction to be given 
in a trade-extension course is comparatively simple. To determine 
the most effective instruction for a trade-conversion course is more 
difficult, inasmuch as the assets already possessed by the workman 
must be considered, weighed, and judged. 

In general, these principles should be observed in regard to the 
character of instruction: 

(1) The training for most shipyard occupations, at least on the 
manipulative side, can best be given in the training department at 
the yard itself. 

(2) Where the part-time or evening class undertakes to give pro¬ 
duction or manipulative training it should be confined to the shop 
trades and given to promising men who, because of this training, 
could be promoted to more responsible positions where they are 
greatly needed. Such training may also be given for the purpose of 
widening the experience of men employed at the shipyards who, as a 
result of their previous experience, are only specialists at a few ma¬ 
chines or processes and who need the practice work furnished by 
the school to broaden their skill and knowledge. 

In general, however, it will be the business of the school to supply 
instruction in technical subjects rather than training in manipulative 
processes. Not only is it certain that few schools will have any very 
great range of shops with which to give training in manipulative skill, 
but it is also clear that even in those lines in which school shops are 
available, the question of what part-time or evening courses, if any, 
should be offered by such schools can be determined only after very 
close consideration of the matter with the director of training. It 
would seem to be obvious, however, that shop work in evening and 
part-time classes for the following lines would be helpful to men 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


11 


employed in shop shipyard trades: Machine shop, sheet metal, black- 
smithing, coppersmithing, carpentry and joinery, plumbing, steam 
fitting, and pattern making. 

COURSES OF STUDY. 

When it has been determined by conference with the director of 
training at the yard that there is need for an evening or part-time 
class giving instruction to men for a specific shipyard occupation, 
the next step is to decide whether it is to be a trade-extension or a 
trade-conversion course. In either case it should be given to the 
class in short units, each unit having a specific content and being 
complete in itself, as, for instance: 

(1) Blue-print reading for deck layouts. 

(2) Lumber calculations for ship carpenters. 

In a trade-conversion course the aim is to remove the deficiency of 
individuals rather than to give a stated course to a group. Before 
enrolling in such a course the student should consult with the director 
of training and the school authorities. At this time the trade 
analysis charts and charts of the kindred trades contained in Part II 1 
should be examined in order that he may measure up his case in 
terms of the demands of the shipyard occupations and his previous 
experience. On the basis of such a conference the question of 
admission to the class can be determined as well as the emphasis 
which should be placed upon the different phases of the instruction. 
The class is to be a continuing process and students are to be dealt 
with as individuals rather than en masse. 

In this emergency work, and for the reason that it is cooperating 
with the Industrial Training Section of the Shipping Board, the 
Federal board does not deem it wise to lay down courses of study in 
detail. The details of such courses and even the need for any course 
must, as previously stated, be determined by local conditions. The 
Federal board, has, however, done two things: 

(1) It has made an analysis of and charted all the important 
shipyard trades. These analyses are useful in formulating courses 
of study and in giving the outside craftsman a conception of what 
the shipyard worker in various trades must do and know. 

(2) It has analyzed and charted the outside trades most closely 
allied with the shipyard trades and pointed out just what the outside 
workman must be taught in order to make him an efficient shipyard 
worker. 

These charts and the necessary printed matter comprise Part II 
of this bulletin. Part III furnishes suggestions for short-unit 
courses of instruction in related subjects which should serve as a 
helpful start in making detailed courses of study. 


i Larger copies of these charts may be obtained from the Federal board. 



12 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


Attention is called to the fact that the instructors at shipyards 
who have been prepared at Newport News have had special training 
in the making of courses of study for different occupations. In 
case a part-time or evening class is projected by the school authori¬ 
ties at a shipyard where one of these instructors is located, assistance 
in the preparation of these courses can doubtless be secured from 
this source. 

The Federal board will from time to time send information to the 
State boards for vocational education, which can be utilized in the 
making of courses of study. An interchange of information between 
the State boards, using the Federal office as a channel of communi¬ 
cation, will assist all concerned in the organization and administra¬ 
tion of this work and in the making of courses of study as well as in 
using different methods of instruction. 

INSTRUCTORS. 

As far as possible the instructors should be men from the ship¬ 
yards. Not less than $3, and up to at least $5 a night, should be 
paid in order to attract and hold desirable teachers. When mech¬ 
anicians and technicians empk^ed by the school authorities are 
engaged in the instruction for shipyard occupations, they should 
be required to familiarize themselves with these occupations by 
definite periods of assignment of time for visitation and study at 
the shipyards. 

FEDERAL AID. 

Evening or part-time classes established for training for shipyard 
occupations, when approved by a State board as meeting the condi¬ 
tions of the plan proposed by the State board and adopted by the 
Federal board, may receive Federal aid from the industrial and trade 
education fund in the same way and to the same extent as any other 
evening or part-time industrial or trade school or class carried on in 
the State. 

REPORTS AND CERTIFICATES. 

Because of the present emergency special arrangements should be 
made by the State boards for vocational education to secure prompt, 
frequent and complete reports from the evening schools or classes for 
shipbuilding occupations herein proposed, and arrangements should 
be made by the States for the close inspection and supervision of this 
work from the beginning. No reports of any kind will be expected 
by the Federal board from these classes other than those which come 
through the State boards. The relation of these classes to the 
State boards and to the shipyards, and therefore to the Federal board, 
is no different from the relationship of any other part-time or evening 
classes established for the training of workers for local trades and 
industries. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


13 


CERTIFICATION. 

When the local shipyard authorities believe that a statement on the 
part of the school as to the progress and record of the students fitting 
themselves for a shipbuilding occupation is of value to them, arrange¬ 
ments will be made by the local school authorities for such certifica¬ 
tion. It is believed that it is impossible at present for the Federal 
board to standardize certification. 

FURTHER PUBLICATION. 

From time to time the Federal board will publish the results of 
such of its studies and investigations as disclose information which 
will be helpful to the State boards for vocational education. 


t 


/ 





PART II. 


The following analysis of the shipbuilding and kindred trades has 
been made by the Federal Board for Vocational Education in order 
to assist instructors and students in schools and classes designed to 
train craftsmen for the emergency shipbuilding program. The 
summary may be of assistance to employment agencies and others 
interested in recruiting men for shipbuilding. 

A SUMMARY OF SHIPBUILDING AND KINDRED TRADES. 


Trades outside of shipyards. 


Architectural iron worker 
Asbestos workers. 

Auto repair man. 

Blacksmiths: 

Railroad blacksmiths 
Machine blacksmiths. 

Hammer men. 

Tool dressers. 


Boiler maker. 

Bricklayer. 

Bucker-up. (See Riveter.) 
Cabinetmaker. 


Carpenter 


Carvers. 

Carriage smith 
Wagon smith.. 
Wheelwright. . 


Chipper 


Concrete man. 

Core maker... 
Coppersmith.. 
Dock builders 
Drop forger... 


Shipyard trades in which these crafts¬ 
men may be used. 


Anglesmith. 

Pipe coverers. 

Ship fitter. 

Outside machinist. 

Blacksmith. 

Hammer men. 

Tool dressers. 

Shipsmiths. 

Anglesmiths. 

Plate and shape furnace men. 

Ship fitters. 

Boiler maker. 

Ship fitter. 

Flange turner. 

Pipe coverer. 
k Cem enter. 

Joiner. 

Template maker. 

'Ship carpenter (shipwright). 

Ship joiner (if he has had experience on 
inside work). 

Mold loftsman. 

Ship fitter. 

Carving (in joiner shop). 

Blacksmith. 

Anglesmith. 

Plate and shape furnaceman. 

Ship fitter. 

Chipper (in foundry). 

Chipper (in yard and on ship). 

Calker (steel). 

Riveter. 

Cementer. 

Pipe coverer. 

Core maker. 

Coppersmith. 

Ship carpenters (stage builders). 

Drop forger. 


15 






























16 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


A summary of shipbuilding and kindred trades —Continued. 


Trades outside of shipyards. 


Engineers, steam. 


Erecting engineer or road man. 


Elevator constructor. 

Electrical workers: 

(а) Outside man.. 

(б) Inside wireman. 

(c) Telephone installer.. 

(d) Wire chief. 

(e) Trouble shooter. 

(f) Switchboard man... 

(g) Motor repair man... 

(h) Armature winder.... 

Galvanizer. 

Gasfitter. (See Pipe fitter.) 
Granite cutters. 

Stone cutters. 

Quarrymen. 

Heater. (See Riveter.) 

Horseshoers. 


House mover.. 
Lumber jacks. 


Machinists. 


Molders. 


Shipyard trades in which these crafts¬ 
men may be used. 


( Outside machinists (if they have had 
erecting or repair experience). 

Pipe fitters, 
fOutside machinist. 

(Shipwright. 

(Outside machinist. 

(.Shipwright. 

Outside wireman in yard. 

Wireman on ship. 

Jwiring on intercommunicating systems. 

Motor repairer and installer. 

Armature winder. 

Galvanizer. 

1 Chipper and calkers. 

Drillers and reamers. 

{ Blacksmith. 

Anglesmith. 

Plate and shape furnaceman (or helpers). 
Ship fitter. 

Shipwright. 

("Ship carpenters. 

1 Lumber handlers and stage builders. 

Floor hands. 

Bench hands. 

Machine hands. 

Machine operators. 

Outside machinists. 

Molders of all kinds. 

Green sand, dry sand, bench, side floor 
and floor, cast iron, steel, and brass. 
Anglesmith. 

Painter. 


Ornamental iron worker. 

Painter. 

Pipe fitters: 

Steam fitter. 

Gas fitter. 

Pile-driver man. 

Plumbers. 

Painters. 

Passer. ( See Riveter.) 

Plasterers. 

Quarrymen. ( See Granite cutters.) 

.{Bolter 

Riveters: 

Structural. 

Tank. 

Automobile. 

Bucker-ups.I Holder-ons. 

Passers, heaters. Passers, heaters. 

Sailors.j Rigger (in rigging loft). 

Steam fitter (see Pipe fitter)— 


j-Pipe fitters. 

Shipwright. 

Plumbers. 

Painters (wood and metal). 
Pipe coverers, cementers. 


Riveters. 











































EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


17 


A summary of shipbuilding and kindred trades —Continued. 


Trades outside of shipyards. 


Shipyard trades in which these crafts 
men may be used. 


Structural iron Workers: 

(a) Structural marker. 

(b) Structural fitter. 

(c) Structural liner or regulator 

( d) Structural erector. 

( e ) Structural template maker. 

(/) Structural draftsman. 

(g) Structural yardman. 


Sheet-metal worker. 

Tent and awning maker. 

Wagonsmith. (See Carriagesmith.) 
Wheelwright. (See Carriagesmith.) 
Wood finisher. 


(Ship titter. 

\ Loftsman. 

( Assembler or bolter-up. 
Ship fitter. 

Loftsman. 

( Shipwright. 

Assembler. 

Ship fitter. 

( Assembler or bolter-up. 
Ship fitter. 

Shipwright. 

Riveter. 

(Template maker. 
!\Loftsman. 

( Draftsman. 

Mold loftsman. 

Ship fitter. 

( Material man. 

Cold sawyer. 

Yard man. 

[Sheet-metal worker. 

| Ship fitter. 

[Mold loftsman. 
Sailmaker. 


Wood finisher. 


Helpers in practically all of these trades can be used. 

A STUDY OF SHIPBUILDING AND KINDRED TRADES. 

For purposes of comparison with outside trades, the shipbuilding 
trades are divided into three classes: 

(1) Shipbuilding trades in which there is no corresponding out¬ 
side trade, but for which experience in certain kindred trades is an 
asset. 

(2) Shipbuilding trades in which there is a corresponding out¬ 
side trade, but for which additional special training is necessary for 
satisfactory work in shipbuilding. 

(3) Shipbuilding trades into which the outside craftsman may 
come without additional special training. 

33702—18-3 




















18 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


I. Shipbuilding Trades of the First Class. 

The ship trades in which there is no corresponding outside trade 
are the following: 

(1) Mold loftsman. 

(2) Shipwright or ship carpenter. 

(3) Ship fitter. 

(4) Wood calker. 

(5) Sailmaker. 

(6) Plate and shape furnace man. 

(7) Anglesmith. 

(8) Rigger. 

MOLD LOFTSMAN (CHART 1.) 

The mold loftsman, or loftsman as he is often called, is a combi¬ 
nation of draftsman and template maker on steel shipwork. In his 
drafting work three plans are used: The sheer, half-breadth and body 
plans corresponding to the side, top, and end views commonly used 
in drafting. The body plan is drawn upon the floor full-size; the 
sheer and half-breadth plans are usually drawn to a large scale on a 
drafting table. From these plans and from drawings, the full-size 
layouts of the various parts of the ship are made on the floor. Tem¬ 
plates or molds (wooden or paper patterns) are then made to con¬ 
form to these layouts and from them the shapes and plates for the 
ship are marked for fabrication by the ship fitters. The most diffi¬ 
cult work in the mold loft is that of the linesman,, and this is usually 
done by one or two special men. It is their duty to pencil or “fair” 
the body p.an upon the floor, and in some cases to draw the sheer 
and half-breadth plans from which important measurements are 
taken. It is also their duty to do the most difficult laying out, 
particularly that requiring a knowledge of development. The less 
difficult parts are laid out by the regular loftsmen who may also 
.make the necessary wooden templates. These are sometimes made 
by special workmen known as mold makers. 

The mold makers merely make the template to conform to the 
lines, laid out for them and need not necessarily have any knowl¬ 
edge of ship construction. 

General qualifications.—Every craftsman needs one or all of three 
kinds of skill: Planning skill, assembling skill, or fabricating skill. 
A loftsman is preeminently a planner, not an assembler or a fabri¬ 
cator. He must be able accurately to read blueprints of a compli¬ 
cated nature and clearly to visualize the relation of the various 
parts indicated. He must be able in addition to measure and lay out 
accurately from drawings and have a knowledge of the form, loca¬ 
tion, and use of the various parts of the ship. For the work of the 
linesman, he must have a knowledge of drawing and developments 
and a special acquaintance with ship construction. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


19 


Kindred trades ( Chart 2). —Men for the mold-loft trade must be 
drawn from trades in which planning skill in structural work is a 
chief requirement. If a man is employed simply as a template 
maker, skill with woodworking tools is the only essential. Men in 
the following trades possess skill and knowledge which is of assist¬ 
ance in mold-loft work: 

Structural template maker. 

Structural marker or layer out. 

Sheet-metal worker. 

House carpenter. 

Cabinetmaker. 

Naval draftsman. 

Structural, architectural, or mechanical draftsman 

Pattern maker. 

Some loftsmen are of the opinion that draftsmen are not successful 
in loft work due to the fact that they are accustomed to work on a 
small scale and are unfamiliar with tools. Others have been very 
successful in training draftsmen after they have become somewhat 
accustomed to ship blue prints. 

SHIPWRIGHT OR SHIP CARPENTER (( HART 3 ). 

The work of the shipwright is the most varied of any of the ship¬ 
building trades. He follows closely and plays a part in the con¬ 
struction of the ship from the laying of the keel blocks until the 
vessel slides into the water. The work may be roughly divided 
into two classes—the carpentry or woodwork, such as the building 
of scaffolding, building cradle and launching wavs, laying wood 
decks, installing ceiling, etc., and the erecting or millwright work, 
such as horning bulkheads, lining and installing stem and stern 
posts, laying off for and installing deck fittings, fairing frames, and 
keeping ship fair upon the ways. The first class of work calls for 
the fabricating skill and knowledge of woodworking tools possessed 
by the carpenter: the second for the planning and assembling skill 
of the millwright and erecting man. 

Spar making, boat building, and calking wood decks are special 
classes of shipwright work and are done by special gangs or special 
men. Inside work, such as the building of stairs, cases, cupboards, 
berths, and paneling, commonly known as interior finish, is not 
done by the shipwright but by the ship joiner. 

General qualifications. A shipwright is primarily a planner and 
assembler, and in certain forms of work, such as spar making and 
boat building, a skillful fabricator. He must be particularly able in 
keeping the ship and various parts of the ship properly lined, squared, 
and plumbed. Aside from this, he must have a practical knowledge 
of timbers and of proper methods of blocking, shoring, and stage 


20 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


building, with particular application to the construction of the launch¬ 
ing cradle and launching ways. For this work he needs a knowledge 
of, as well as skill in, using carpenter’s tools on heavy work and, in 
addition, some skill with the broadax and adze. It is desirable, 
but not absolutely necessary for all classes of work, that he be able 
to read blue prints and make rough sketches. 

Kindred trades (Charts 4 and 5 ).—Men for the shipwright trade 
must be drawn from those requiring planning and assembling skill 
on both wood and metal structures. Fine skill in woodworking, 
such as that possessed by the cabinetmaker, joiner, and inside fin¬ 
isher, is not required. Experience in any one of the following 
trades is an asset: 

Master carpenter or contractor. 

House carpenter. 

Rough carpenter or handy man. 

Bridge carpenter. 

House mover. 

Dock and wharf builder. 

Pile-driver man. 

Lumber jack. 

Lumber yard and sawmill man. 

Millwright. 

Erecting engineer. 

Liner (on structural-steel work). 

Machine erector or road man. 

Structural or bridge erector. 

Elevator constructor. 


SHIP FITTER (CHART 6). 

The work of the ship fitter is to lay out for fabrication and to 
assemble the various steel plates and shapes of which the ship is 
constructed. The work is similar to that of the structural marker, 
fitter, and erector; in fact, it is a combination of all three. In the 
case of light work the ship fitter erects upon the ship; heavy work 
is erected by yard riggers and squared up by shipwrights. His 
work may be said to begin where that of the loftsman leaves off. 
In other words, he lays out, supervises the fabrication of, and as¬ 
sembles the parts for which the loftsman makes the templates. In 
addition to laying out from templates furnished by the mold loft, 
he also makes or “lifts” templates himself direct from the ship for 
pieces of special shape and sees that they are properly formed and 
fitted into place. Riveting in final position is done by riveters, not 
by ship fitters. 

General, qualifications .—A ship fitter is preeminently a planner and 
assembler. He should be familiar with methods of fabricating plates 
and shapes, able to read blue prints and to lay out rapidly and 
accurately from templates or drawings. In addition, he should be 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


21 


able to “lift his own. templates from the ship when required; in 
fact, this is one of his most important duties. To be able to work on 
any part of the ship demands a special knowledge of ship construc¬ 
tion and its special rules and requirements. 

Kindred trades (Chart 7).—Men for shipfitting must be drawn from 
metal working trades requiring planning and assembling skill. The 
trades most closely allied are the structural steel trades, in some of 
which work almost identical with some shipfitting processes is done. 
These trades are: 

(1) ‘Structural marker. 

(2) Structural fitter. 

(3) Structural erector. 

(4) Structural template maker. 

(5) Structural yard man. 

(6) Structural draftsman. 

Trades less closely allied, but experience in which is an asset, are 
the following: 

(1) Blacksmith. 

(2) Boilermaker. 

(3) Sheet metal worker. 

(4) Ornamental and architectural ironworker. 

(5) Jobbing machinist or auto repair man. 

(6) House carpenter. 

ANGLESMITII AND PLATE AND SHAPE FURNACEMAN (CHART 8). 

In the process of ship construction some of the work on plates 
and shapes is done cold, such as drilling, countersinking, plar.ing, 
shearing, beveling and rolling. When a considerable amount of 
bending and shaping is required, the plates and shapes must be heated. 
The anglesmith and shape furnaceman heat and bend the shapes 
required for the framing of the ship, using as patterns the wood 
templates or molds furnished by the mold loft or lifted from the ship 
by ship fitters. The anglesmith bends and welds small lengths 
and light angular shapes in a shop equipped like a blacksmith shop 
with forges or small furnaces, anvils and ordinary blacksmith tools. 
The shape furnaceman or frame bender bends the large, heavy 
structural shapes used in the framing of the ship on a large iron 
floor known as the bending floor or bending blocks. The heating is 
done in an oil or gas furnace 24 to 30 feet long and 8 or 9 feet wide. 
Templates for the frames are furnished by the mold loft. The 
plate furnaceman shapes the special plates for the ship in the same 
way, but uses somewhat different tools. In some yards a man is 
expected to do both plate and shape work; in others he specializes 
on one class of work only. 

General qualifications. —The qualifications for this work are those 
of a blacksmith trained on special work. The workman is primarily 


22 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


a fabricator not a planner or assembler, though some planning is 
required in allowing proper amount of stock for bends and offsets. 
It is desirable, but not necessary, that he be able to read blue prints. 
Besides knowing proper temperatures for working he must under¬ 
stand in a practical way the behavior of shapes and plates when heated 
and cooled so as to make proper allowance for shrinkage and change 
of shape when cooling. This requires judgment which can be ac¬ 
quired only by experience and observation. On the light work of 
the anglesmith a man must work rapidly because the light weight 
angles cool much more rapidly than the solid bars to which a black¬ 
smith is accustomed. Manual skill is required in bending, shaping 
and welding. An anglesmith works with one or two helpers on 
bending, shaping and welding. The plate and shape furnaceman 
works with a gang of four or more on bending and shaping, but not 
on welding. 

Kindred trades .—Any trade in which a man bends and shapes or 
handles heated iron and steel is an asset in this work. These trades 
and occupations are: 

Blacksmith. 

Horseshoer. 

Wheelwright. 

Blacksmiths’ helper. 

Striker. 

Back handler. 

Ornamental and architectural ironworker. 

Steel mill man. 

RIGGERS AND SAILMAKERS (CHART 9). 

The riggers in the rigging loft splice, serve and fit the wire and 
manila cable used on the ship and make and repair the slings used for 
hoisting in the yard. With the aid of helpers they install the standing 
and running rigging on the ship. Sailmakers cut, sew, and fit sails 
and awnings for the ship. Measurements for both the rigging and 
sails are taken by the leading man or foreman of the loft and the 
actual work is done by the workmen in the loft. 

No special requirements are necessary for this work and the only 
occupation offering any assets for the rigging work is that of the 
sailor. Sailmakers may be recruited from sailors and tent and 
awning men. 

CALKERS (CHART 3). 

Calking in ship work is of two distinct kinds; calking of wood 
decks and the seams of vessels of wood construction and calking of 
seams between metil plates, of joints between plates and shapes and 
around rivets, pipe flanges, etc. Calking of wood seams is done 
by spreading the seam, filling it with cotton and oakum, and pound- 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


23 


ing in with a wooden mallet and special calking tools. Wood calking 
is a distinctly ship trade. It is usually considered a part of the ship¬ 
wright work, and there is no kindred outside trade, except the some¬ 
what lighter calking done on launches, pleasure boats, and other 
small craft. 


II. Shipbuilding Trades of the Second Class. 


The ship trades in which there is a corresponding outside trade, 
but for which some special training is necessary, are the following: 


(1) Trades in the pipe shop 

(2) Sheet-metal worker. 

(3) Ship joiner. 

(4) Ship electrician. 

<5) Blacksmith. 

(6) Outside machinist. 

(7) Chipper and calker. 

(8) Riveter. 


Plumber. 
Pipe fitter. 
Coppersmith. 


TRADES IN THE PIPE SHOP. 

Marine plumber (Chart 10). —The trade of the marine plumber is 
very similar to that of the house plumber, especially as it relates 
to the piping and installation of sanitary fixtures and appliances. 
The marine plumber does not install steam and hot-water heating 
systems or gas piping for light and heat, two classes of work familiar 
to the house plumb3i\ Tne marine plumber’s work consists chiefly 
of ruiming and fitting piping and fixtures for, and installing bath 
tubs, closets, urinals, showers, lavatories, and sinks. He also uses 
sheet lead in lining tanks, refrigerating rooms and galley dressers, 
lines pipes with lead tubing, and casts the lead base for closets from 
a wood pattern rammed in sand. The tools, materials, and methods 
used, and the operations performed by the marine and house plumb¬ 
ers are the same. The differences arise from the conditions to be 
met. 

Marine pipe fitter (Chari 10). —The work of the marine pipe fitter 
and that of the outside pipe fitter are even more closely akin than 
are the work of the house and marine plumber. Their field is the 
installation of iron, steel, brass and galvanized pipe, steel tubing 
and fittings for high and low pressure steam, hot and cold water 
supply systems, air, oil, and refrigerating systems. In marine work 
the outside machinists make up a number of joints which in outside 
work would be handled by pipe fitters, notably those in the machinery 
spaces. Tools, materials, and operations are the same in both cases. 

Marine coppersmith (Chart 10). —The work of the marine copper¬ 
smith is that of fitting and installing copper pipe and fittings. His 



24 EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 

work differs from that of the plumber and pipefitter in that he must 
make large pipes and bends and form large special shaped pieces 
such as condenser heads, exhaust connections of sheet copper and 
must do brazing and flanging. The outside coppersmith, unless 
employed on brewery or sugar-factory equipment, is usually accus¬ 
tomed to much smaller, lighter work than the marine coppersmith. 

Corresponding trades (Chart 11 ).—These three pipe-shop trades are 
closely related to each other as well as to the corresponding outside 
trades, but all three differ from the corresponding trades in three 
special particulars: (1) Water-tight joints must be made in many 
cases around pipes where they pass through bulkheads; (2) pipe 
bending is much more common; (3) flange joints are much more 
common and must be sufficiently well made to stand the vibration 
and strain of the ship. These differences are simply due to ship con¬ 
ditions and do not imply any fundamental difference in trade knowl¬ 
edge or skill. Any experienced journeyman plumber, pipe fitter, or 
coppersmith can become competent on ship work in a short time 
and with very little special training. In recruiting men for ship 
work these three trades should be drawn upon, as there are no other 
kindred trades and the common fund of trade knowledge and skill 
is very large. 

SHEET-METAL WORKER (CHART 12). 

The sheet-metal worker on a ship works and fits sheet metal up 
to 5 pounds weight per square foot. The metal may be sheet iron 
or steel, galvanized or plain, sheet brass or copper. Two main 
differences exist between ship work and that outside: 

(1) In ship work water and oil tight work is very important. In 
many lines outside this is of no importance whatever. 

(2) The variety of work called for in shipbuilding is much greater 
than that represented by any one line of outside work. Ship 
work comprises smokestack work, including expansion joints, cowl 
making, ventilation work, tank work, and sheet steel and wire mesh 
locker work. Men who are specialists in any one of these lines can 
be used in ship work on the same special line. In practically every 
case the new man must receive special instruction and training on 
the water-tight work. 

Desirable craftsmen for ship work on sheet metal: Heating and 
ventilation man, tank man, sheet steel and wire mesh locker man, 
blowpipe man (man who installs blower systems in woodworking 
plants), cornice man (desirable because of his varied experience). 

Tinsmiths and furnace men are sometimes not so desirable because 
they are accustomed to small light work. In case they have had 
experience on heavier and more complicated work they can be more 
quickly trained to ship work. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


25 


SHIP JOINER (CHART 13). 

The ship joiner is the cabinetmaker and inside finisher. Painting, 
oiling, varnishing, and general wood finishing are done by the painter, 
not the cabinetmaker. Any good cabinetmaker is capable of doing 
corresponding work on the ship or in the joiner shop. Carpenters 
with experience on inside finish are useful on the ship and in the 
cabinet shop. In connection with the ship work they must become 
accustomed to the slant or bevel cuts and to metal fittings. 

Desirable craftsmen for ship joinery: Cabinetmaker or joiner, 
furniture maker, carpenter with experience on inside finish. 

Machine operators for the cabinet shop, such as molder, sticker, 
planer, and shaper hands may be obtained from the corresponding 
occupations in planing mills, sash and door, and furniture manu¬ 
facturing plants. 

SHIP ELECTRICIAN. 

The work of the ship electrician corresponds closely to that of 
the outside electrician in its various phases. In the shipyard 
there are two general classes of work, outside and inside. The 
former is that done in the yard and shops and comprises the 
installation and maintenance of equipment used therein. This 
work does not differ from that of any electrician employed in factory 
or yard work, and includes outside linework, installation and repair 
of motors and generators and light and power circuits. 

Inside work, or work on the ship, comprises the installation and 
maintenance of all electrical equipment on the ship with the excep¬ 
tion, in some cases, of the storage batteries. Most of the work is 
direct current with no high voltage. No cleat or open work is done 
and little or no knob and tube work. Most of it is conduit work. 

The following points require special attention in the case of the 
new man, taking for granted that he possesses the knowledge and 
skill of a competent inside wireman: (1) Methods of making steam- 
tight and water-tight joints around wire. (2) The use of armored 
cable. (3) Specifications such as Lloyds' code and special Govern¬ 
ment specifications differing from the Underwriters' code. (4) Care 
in installing conduit work because it is not concealed. (5) Compli¬ 
cated connections for intercommunicating systems. (6) Speaking 
tube work. (7) Engine telegraphs. 

Desirable craftsmen for ship electrician: Inside wireman with 
experience on conduit work, telephone switchboard man on inter¬ 
communicating systems, telephone installer, trouble shooter and 
wire chief, repair man on motors and generators, armature winder, 
switchboard installer. 

Meter men and experts on auto starting systems do not have 
sufficient experience on installation to make them immediately 

useful. 

33702—18-4 



26 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


BLACKSMITH. 

In ship work the work of the anglesmith, frame bender, and 
furnace man, though similar to that of the blacksmith, is distinct 
and has already been described. The blacksmith shop proper con¬ 
tains the following classes of men: 

Hammermen or heavy forgers. 

Machine blacksmiths. 

Shipsmiths. 

Drop forgers. 

Tool dressers. 

Helpers and strikers. 

Hammermen or heavy forgers are employed in corresponding 
outside trades. They can readily do the heavy-hammer forging 
on ship work save in very special cases, such as sternposts, rudders, 
and rudder posts. The shipsmitli forges the chains, fittings, bands, 
and special forgings for the rigging. For this work the railroad 
blacksmith or machine blacksmith is particularly adapted. The 
railroad blacksmith, however, is usually not accustomed to close 
work, but is more rapid and resourceful than the machine blacksmith. 
The machine blacksmith is more accustomed to close work. Drop 
forgers and tool dressers can do ship work without additional train¬ 
ing. Wagonsmiths and carriagesmiths, sometimes called wheel¬ 
wrights, can be used on the lighter and less difficult ship work. As 
a rule they lack breadth of experience. 

OUTSIDE MACHINIST. 

The outside machinist erects machinery and equipment on the 
ship and operates machinery for trial purposes. There are in 
general three classes of work: 

(1) Engineering work comprising the installation and operation 
of the engine-room machinery including main and auxiliary engines, 
pumps, piping, propeller shafts, propellers, and bearings. 

(2) Hull work on valves, sea chests, fittings, etc. 

(3) Deck machinery, winches, capstans, steering gear, etc. 

The work is closely connected with that of the shipwright and 
pipe fitter. Practice varies somewhat in different yards as to the 
work done by each. The corresponding outside craftsman is usually 
called an erecting man or road man. The work of the two is essen¬ 
tially the same, as are the tools and processes used. In ship work, 
however, the following special points may be noted: 

(1) Long lines are stretched and located for propeller shafts in 
which the sag must be' carefully allowed for. 

(2) In ship work the level can not be used as frequently as in 
outside work, because shafting foundations and bearings may not 
be level or horizontal. 

(3) There are no vertical walls for which measurements may be 
taken. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. • 27 

(4) The space in which work is done is small and cramped. Get¬ 
ting pieces into position is often difficult. 

Desirable craftsmen for outside machinists: (1) Erecting man on 
steam engines, turbines, machine tools, or any form of heavy ma¬ 
chinery; (2) erecting specialist on gas engines; (3) millwright; (4) 
erecting man on steam boilers; (5) automobile, gas-engine assembler 
or repair man; (6) elevator constructor. 

CHIPPER AND CALKER (cnART 14). 

Wood calking has already been referred to as a distinctly ship 
trade, and a part of the shipwright’s work. Metal calking is 
not a distinctly ship trade and is not a part of the shipwright 
work, but is usually associated with that of the chipper. The 
operation consists in wedging together the metal on both sides 
of a joint so as to make it water-tight. The chipper and calker 
use the same style of air hammer, and before plates can be 
calked they must usually be prepared by chipping; consequently 
a calker must necessarily understand chipping. Chippers are 
often promoted to calkers as they gain in skill in handling the air 
hammer and tools. Hand chipping and calking are sometimes done. 

Kindred trades. —The only work akin to that of the calker is the 
calking done by the structural-steel workers on tanks and the calk¬ 
ing done by the boiler maker on boiler seams. The purpose of the 
operation is in both cases identical, and in general the same tools 
are used. A boiler maker’s work is somewhat heavier and requires 
greater skill and care. He uses the fuller and square tool, which are 
not used by the ship calker. Air hammer and hand chipping is 
done in foundries, machine shops, boiler shops, and structuraksteel 
shops, often by helpers except on work requiring special care. The 
tools used and the operations are the same as in ship work. Stone¬ 
cutters and quarrymen accustomed to using the mallet or air hammer 
and chisel are also adapted to this work. 

RIVETER (CHARTS 15 AND 16). 

Of all the trades in shipbuilding in which there is a corre¬ 
sponding outside trade, the riveter is the most important. The 
building of a steel ship, whether it be standardized or not, is 
ultimately a question of driving rivets. A 7,500-ton ship requires 
about 650,000 rivets. The best week’s drive by any shipyard 
is that of the San Francisco Union Iron Works of 250,000 
rivets. Other yards have driven approximately 200,000 per week. 
A good ship riveter must be able to drive rivets rapidly, cleanly, 
and to make them water tight, using the long-stroke air hammer 
and in most cases a flush die. Hand riveting is seldom done. Bull 
riveting is done wherever possible, chiefly on nonwater-tight work. 
In the yard, chippers and calkers are often trained as riveters, due 
to the fact that they are accustomed to handling an air hammer. 


28 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


The best source of supply from the outside trades is the structural 
riveter, including the tank riveter. The main problem in training 
the structural riveter is not one of teaching the detail of mechanical 
processes. The structural riveter or erector is a high-spirited, ener¬ 
getic, pushing workman proud of his calling and loath to believe that 
he must be taught something new. By nature and training he is 
inclined to rush and to chafe at interference. The main problem is 
to teach him greater care in water-tight work and at the same time 
not to destroy his inherent push and energy and desire to “get the 
job done.” Details of comparison of the ship and structural riveter 
will be found on chart 16 . 

til. Shipbuilding Trades into which the Outside Craftsman 
May Come Without Additional Training. 

The following trades are represented in outside work and ship- 
work, and practically no additional special training is required for 
ship work: 

Machinist. 

Boiler maker. 

Diesinker. 

Patternmaker. 

Yard rigger and craneman. 

Acetylene welder and burner. 

Electric welder. 

Molder. 

Core maker 

Driller and reamer. 

Galvan izer. 

’Machine operators in steel mill or ship shed. 

Painter. 

The statement that no special training is required does not mean 
that the outside craftsman may be expected to handle immediately 
any and all classes of ship work falling within his trade. It means 
that in these trades the same tools, processes, and materials are 
used, and under the same conditions as in the outside trades. There 
are special points to be mastered, as in every special class of work, 
notably in regard to size and quantity of product, as in the case of 
the molder, core maker, and galvanizer. The objection made by 
many shipbuilders to the outside craftsman is that he is “a specialist 
and not an all-round man.” This objection has been most frequently 
made in the case of the sheet-metal worker, boiler maker, molder, 
and blacksmith, and to some extent in the case of the machinist. 
Another frequent objection made is that “ho can not read blue 
prints,” or “is lost when put up against a ship blue print.” 

The supplementary evening and part-time classes, with which this 
bulletin deals, can be made very effective in removing these objec¬ 
tions in the present emergency. 


PART III. 


COURSES. 

Many craftsmen entering a shipyard for the first time and all 
persons who have not had trade experience before entering are in 
need of one or more of five fundamental things immediately upon 
employment: 

1. A knowledge of yard organization ( varying somewhat in each shipyard). 

2. A knowledge of terms and conventions used in shipbuilding. 

3. A knowledge of and ability to read ship blue prints. 

4. A knowledge of ship construction. 

5. Breadth of experience in the manipulative side of their trade. 

Evening and part-time classes can be most useful in dealing with 
topics (1), (2), (3), and (4) when the specific need of a certain group 
is pointed out by the director of training at the yard. If shops are 
available, some work may be done in giving breadth of experience 
in the manipulative side of the trade to men who, before entering 
the yard, have had trade experience. Initiatory training, as pre¬ 
viously stated, is a function solely of the yard training department. 
Effective training in the yard trades can not be given in a school 
shop. 

The following suggestions are intended to point out the general 
lines which may be followed in part-time and evening classes in 
order to be most useful in the training of shipyard workers. Details 
of these courses, suggestions for other courses, and the specific fields 
which they must cover can be determined only by conference with 
the director of training at the yard. General courses in trade sci¬ 
ence, mathematics, and drawing have not been outlined here, as they 
have already been developed from the trade standpoint and are a part 
of the general program for vocational education. They are not a 
part of the emergency program with which this bulletin deals. 

Fundamental Courses for Shipyard Workers of All Classes* 

YARD ORGANIZATION. 

(1) The national program for shipbuilding. 

(2) The relation of the yard concerned to this program. 

(3) The departments of the yard and their location. 

(4) Specific work of each department. 

(5) The relation of these departments to each other. 

(6) The heads of these departments and location of their offices. 

(7) Routing of work. 

(8) Requisitions, time cards, orders, and reports, etc. 


29 



30 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


NAMES OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF A SHIP. 

(1) Profile and dock plans of a ship. 

(2) Midship section of ship. 

This course should deal only with the most important points in 
ship construction and the names of the most important parts and 
locations, such as— 

{a) Main deck. 

(b) Boat deck. 

(c) Deck house. 

(d) After hold. 

(e) Forward hold. 

(/) Stern frame. 

(g) Rudder. 

( h) Propeller. 

( i ) Bow. 

(j) Stern. 

More detail may bo given in (2) than in (1). The course is not a 
course in reading blue prints. 

A glossary of ship terms in pamphlet or mimeograph form would 
be an excellent text, and should he put into the hands of every 
student. 

Suggested Topics for Supplementary Courses for Ship Trades 
of the First Class. 

MOLDLOFTSMEN. 

(1) Reading and interpretation of blue prints with special refer¬ 

ence to— 

(a) Name, form, location, construction, and use of different 

parts of a ship. 

(b) Ship terms and abbreviations. 

(c) Determination of details not specified on the print. 

(2) Template marking. 

(3) Lloyds’ Rules. 

(4) Interpretation and use of offset tables. 

(5) Drawing of sheer, half-breadth, and body plans. 

(6) Development and layout of special plates and shapes. 

SHIPFITTERS. 

(1) Samo as above for moldloftsmen. 

(2) Marking of stock for fabrication. 

(3) Lloyds’ Rules. 

(4) Development and layout of special plates and shapes. 


EMERGENCE TRAINING IN .'SHIPBUILDING. 


31 


SHIPWRIGHTS. 

(1) Reading of ship blue prints and rough sketches with reference to— 

(a) General ship construction and erection methods. 

(b) Blocking, shoring, and staging. 

(c) Launching cradle and launching ways. 

(2) Roading of deck plans for location of fittings and machinery— 

(a) Scaling dimensions and distances from blue prints. 

(3) Rough sketching. 

(4) Use and construction of declivity board. 

(5) Practical applications of geometry to lining and squaring up. 

(6) Lumber calculations. 

Supplementary Training for Snip Trades of the Second Class. 

Most of the shipyard trades for which there is a corresponding 
outside trade are shop shipyard trades, as will be seen by referring 
to the list on page 23. In general these trades differ from those 
outside chiefly in the conditions under which the work is done and 
to somo ox tent in the degree to which certain materials and processes 
are emphasized. On this account most of the additional training 
needed by the outside man must be given in tho yard training depart¬ 
ment. It is possible, however, that in some cases assistance may be 
rendered by the school in the shop trades. 

TRADES IN THE PIPE SHOP. 

(a) Plumber. 

(1) Reading of ship blue prints showing plumbing layouts. 

(2) Special standards and specifications for marine plumbing. 

In case any manipulative work is attempted the following points 
are to bo emphasized for the marine plumber. 

(1) Joint wiping and making of special bends and traps. 

(2) Bending of large sizes of lead pipe, as for instance 4-inch pipe. 

(3) Working of sheet load. 

( b ) Pipefitter. 

(1) Reading of ship blue prints showing piping layouts. 

(2) Special specifications and standards for marine work. 

The following are the most important points for the marine pipe 
fitter on the manipulative side, but probably could not be covered 
adequately in a school shop: 

(1) Pipe bending. 

(2) Use of steel tubing. 


32 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


(3) Making up flange joints for— 

(a) Air. 

( b ) Steam. 

(c) Salt water. 

(< d ) Fresh water. 

(e) Refrigeration system. 

(c) Coppersmith. 

(1) Reading of blue prints as for marine plumber and pipe fitter. 
The manipulative operations to be emphasized by the marine 
coppersmith are: 

(1) Pipe bending and template work. 

(2) Forming of bends and shapes from sheet copper. 

(3) Brazing of flanges and flush seams. 

In all three of these trades it is necessary to make water-tight joints 
around pipes. This operation must be taught on the job. 

SHEET-METAL WORKERS. 

(1) Sheet-metal pattern drafting. 

If manipulative work is given, the following points should be 
emphasized: 

(1) Water-tight and tank work. 

(2) Use of solder. 

(3) Riveting. 

(4) Handling of heavy sheet-metal jobs. 

SHIP JOINERS. 

(1) Reading of blue prints. 

(2) Use of bevel and bevel board. 

(3) Construction and use of declivity board. 

(4) General joinery, emphasizing— 

(a) Bevel instead of square w T ork. 

( b ) Mortise and tenon instead of grooved work. 

How much of this may be taught off the job is a question to be 
decided by consultation with the director of training at the yard. 

SHIP ELECTRICIANS. 

(1) Principles of electricity and magnetism as applied to marine 
work. 

(2) Direct-current machinery. 

(3) Special codes and specifications for marine work. 

(4) Wiring diagrams. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 33 

In case manipulative work is done the following points are to be 
emphasized: 

(1) Conduit work. 

(2) Use of armored cable and special fitting. 

(3) Water-tight work. 

(4) Wiring for intercommunicating systems. 

In the case of the blacksmith, outside machinist, and riveter there 
may also be opportunity for trade-extension work. 

Supplementary Training for Ship Trades of the Third Class. 

These trades are listed on page 28. Ship workers in these trades 
use the same tools, processes, and materials as in the corresponding 
outside trades. In the case of the machinist, patternmaker, and 
boilermaker, there is opportunity for effective trade-extension work 
similar to that given to these same men when employed outside the 
yard. There may also be an opportunity, especially in the case of 
the machinists, for courses in the manipulative side of the trade 
designed to broaden the experience of men who may be specialists 
on certain machines and processes. 

In all three trades there is opportunity for courses in trade science, 
trade mathematics, and trade drawing. 

33702—‘18-5 


34 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


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Chart 2 (continued ).—Comparison of loftsman and other kindred trades. 


38 


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Chart 3 .—Analysis of the shipwright's trade. 

[Prepared by the Federal Board for Vocational Education at the request of the United States Shipping Board and Emergency Fleet Corporation. Large copies of this chart may be 

obtained from the Federal Board.] 


40 


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Chart 3. —Analysis of the shipwright's trade —Continued. 


42 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


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Chart 4 .—Comparison of shipwright and kindred trades involving use of woodworking tools —Continued. 


44 


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Chart 5. —Comparison of shipwright and kindred trades involving erecting skill. 

[Prepared by the Federal Board for Vocational Education at the request of the United States Shipping Board and Emergency Fleet Corporation. Large copies of this chart may 

be obtained from the Federal Board.] 


46 


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Chart 6 .—Analysis of shi'pjitter's trade —Continued. 


48 


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[Prepared by the Federal Board for Vocational Education at the request of the United States Shipping Board and Emergency Fleet Corporation. Large copies of this chart 

may be obtained from the Federal Board.) 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


49 


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Chart 7 .—Comparison of ship Jitter and kindrecTtrades —Continued. 


50 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING, 


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Chart 8. —Analysis of trades in steel mill. 

[Prepared by the Federal Board for Vocational Education at the request of the United States Shipping Board and Emergency Fleet Corporation. I-arge copies of this chart may 

be obtained from the Federal Board.] 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


51 


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Chart 8. —Analysis of trades in steel mill —Continued. 


52 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING 


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Chart 10.— Analysis of trades in the pipe shop. 

[Prepared bv the Federal Board for Vocational Education at the request of the United States Shipping Board and Emergency Fleet Corporation. Large copies of this chart may be 

obtained from the Federal Board.] 


54 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING 


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Chart 10 .—Analysis of trades in the pipe shop —Continued. 


56 


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1 Prepare(1 b y the Federal Board for Vocational Education at the request of the United States Shipping Board and Emergency Fleet Corporation. Barge copies of this chart may l« 

obtained from the Federal Board.] 




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Chart 11 .—Comparison of pipe-shop trades and corresponding outside trades —Continued. 
COMPARISON OF WORK DONE IN SHIP TRADE AND CORRESPONDING OUTSIDE TRADE. 


58 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 



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Chart 13. —Analysis of ship joiners’ trade. 


60 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


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Chart 14. —Analysis of trade of chippers and calkers. 


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[Prepared by the Federal Board for^Vocational Education at the request of the United States Shipping Board and Emergency Fleet Corporation. Large copies of this chart may be 

obtained from the Federal Board.] 


64 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


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66 


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(1) Knowledge of and skill in using hand riveting tools. (1) Probably a man accustomed to hand riveting on structural work could do or could 

very quickly learn to do any hand riveting required in ship work. Fie may possi¬ 
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GLOSSARY. 

Air hammer—Hammer driven by compressed air for riveting. Sometimes called 
an air gun or “gun.” 

Air holding* on hammer—Hammer with air cushion for holding against a rivet. 
Anneal—To heat and cool metal for the purpose of softening. 

Auxiliary foundationi—Supports for pumps, distillers, condensers, etc. 

Base line— See Lines. 

Bat rivet—A rivet with a cone head. 

Batten—A thin strip of wood used in measuring or making templates. ( See also 
Cargo batten.) 

Bending floor—Large iron floor on which frames are bent. 

Bevel—To change the angle of an angle bar to make it fit in a certain place. 
Bevel-faced hammer—A riveting hammer with sloping face. 

Bevel-faced holding on hammer—A heavy hammer with sloping face for holding 
against a rivet. 

Bilge—The point at which frames turn from bottom to side of ship. 

Body plan— See Lines plan. 

Bosom piece—A short angle connecting the ends of two angles. 

Boss plate—Plate bent to fit around the propeller shaft. 

Braze—To heat and join by meafis of hard solder. 

Breast hook—A plate connecting stringers at bow or stern of ship. 

Break in—To bend in a sheet back of a seam by too heavy 7 calking. 

Bulb angle—An angle with one edge rounded. 

Bulkhead—A steel partition in a ship. 

Butt joint—A joint formed by “butting” the edges of plates together. 

Butt strap—A small plate connecting ends of two plates. 

Bull riveting—Riveting with a compressed air or hydraulic plunger riveter. 
Bulwarks—Protection rail along side of ship. 

Buttock line— See Lines. 

Calker—A man who makes seams tight in wood or metal. Calker usually means a 
metal calker. If wood calker is meant the term “wood calker” is used. 

Camber—The rise or crown of a deck in the center. 

Cant frames—A group of frames extending over the rudder forming stern of ship. 
Cargo batten—Strips of planking on the inside of the frames in the hold to keep 
cargo away from shell of ship. 

Chalk line—A cord used for marking with chalk. 

Chocks—Seats or saddles of wood or metal. 

Clinching pan—A flat plate for clinching nails (used in mold loft). 

Clip—A short angle connecting shapes and plates. 

Condenser head—Connection of exhaust pipe to top of condenser. 

Counterplates—Shell plates around the stern at the upper or weather deck. 
Countersink—To enlarge the upper part of a hole. 

Cradle—A form of plates and angles on which a plate is shaped by the furnace man. 
Davits—Devices to launch lifeboats from ship. 

Deck house—A steel house on deck of ship. 

Deck plan—A drawing showing the layout of a deck. 

Development—A full-sized or developed pattern. 

68 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


69 


Diagonals -Nee Lines. 

Die—A tool for forming a rivet head (applied to rivet dies). 

(а) Flush die —To flatten rivets into a countersunk hole. 

(б) Snap die —To form a round head. 

Displacement—The amount of water displaced by a ship. 

Dolly bar—A heavy bar to hold against a rivet. 

Doubling plate—A plate attached to another plate to stiffen it (often put around an 
opening). 

Fabricate—To punch, cut, shear, drill, bend, flange or weld plates and shapes. 
Fair—In proper position. 

Fair or fair up—To adjust work in proper position. 

Fair lead—A guide for a rope or cable to lead it straight to a desired place. 

Fair ship—To keep a ship square upon the ways during construction. 

Flange—To bend plates to form an angle. 

Floor plate—Vertical plates between inner bottom and shell. 

Flush rivet—A rivet driven with a flush die. (Has a head even with plate or nearly so.) 

Forefoot—The under part of the stem where the center keel rises and joins the stem. 
Frame—Steel section forming ribs of ship to which shell is riveted. 

Frame lines—See Lines. 

Frame mold—Template for the frame of a ship. 

Galley dresser—A cook’s work table. 

Grab stand—A special rig used to hold an electric or air-drilling machine. 

Garboard—Strake or line of plates next to the flat keel. 

Gudgeons—Projections on the stern frame to hold rudder steady. 

Gusset plates—Brackets connecting tank top and frames. 

Half-breadth plan—See Lines plan. 

Hatch—Opening in deck of vessel through which cargo, coal, etc., is loaded. 

Hawse pipe—Hole or pipe through which mooring cable rune. 

Heater or heater boy—One who heats rivets. 

Heating tongs—Tongs used to take a rivet from the fire. 

Hook stick—A rig used to hold drilling machine for light drilling. 

Horn—To line or square up. 

Hull—Body of a ship. 

Inboard—Toward center of ship. 

Inner bottom—Inner shell for bottom of ships, often called tank top. 

Intercostals—Short plates between frames. 

Jam hammer—A special type of holding-on hammer used in heavy riveting. 
Joggle—To bend plates and shapes to fit over other work. 

Keel—The lowest or bottom part of a ship. 

(a) Flat keel —Plate on bottom of ship. 

(b) Vertical keel —Plates and shapes at center line of ship connecting shell and 

inner bottom. 

(c) Bilge keel —Plates and shapes fastened to shell at bilge. 

Keel blocks—Heavy blocks on which ship rests during construction. 

King post—Vertical post to support cargo booms. 

Launching ways—The ways or supports on which the ship is supported when 
launched. 

(а) Ground ways —Fixed timbers. 

(б) Sliding icuys —Timbers which slide over the ground ways carrying the ship. 
Lift—To make a template on ship or in the yard to fit a special place. 

Lightening holes—Holes in plate to reduce weight or permit access. 

Limber holes—Holes in floors for drains. 

Liners—Short bars filling spaces between plates and shapes. 


70 EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 

Lines (on a drawing)—Principal lines of a drawing are as follows: 

(а) Base line —A horizontal reference line from which vertical measurements 

are taken. 

(б) Buttock line —A vertical line on the body plan parallel with the center line; 

a horizontal line in the half-breadth plan parallel to the center line; a 
curved line in the sheer plan. 

(c) Center line —A vertical line in the center of the body plan perpendicular to 

the base line; a horizontal line in the half-breadth plan through the 
center of the ship. 

(d) Diagonals —Lines running diagonally from center line to frame lines. 

{e) Frame lines —Outlines showing shape of frame of vessel. 

(/) Water lines —Horizontal lines parallel to the base line in the body plan; 
horizontal lines parallel to the base line in the sheer plan; curved lines 
in the half-breadth plan. 

Lines (on a ship)—Wires, cords, or chalk lines from which measurements are taken. 

(a) Center line —A line through the center of the ship equally distant from 

sides or a vertical line carried up through center of ship at right angles 
to base line. 

(b) Base line —A reference line for vertical measurements at right angles to 

vertical center lines. 

(c) Grade line —A reference line established on a fixed slope or level. 

(d) Check line —An auxiliary reference line. 

Linesman—A skilled loftsman who does especially difficult work. 

Lines plan—Drawing showing general outline or form of the ship. 

The lines plan comprises three plans: 

(а) Sheer plan —A side view showing length of ship and heights of parts from keel. 

(б) Half breadth plan —A top view showing a horizontal or floor plan on any 

water line. 

(c) Body plan —An end view showing curves of the sides or frame lines at any 
point in the ship. Frame lines forward of midship section are on the 
right of the center line, aft of midship section, on the left of center line. 
Loftsman—A man who lays out and makes molds for a ship. 

Lugpad—A projection on deck with hole for fastening a block for a lead. 

Margin—Plate connecting shell and inner bottom forming outboard boundary of in¬ 
ner bottom. 

Marking hammer—A tool for marking rivet holes on a template with paint. 

Marker—A brass pipe dipped in enamel for marking rivet holes on stock. 
Marlinspike—A pointed, tapering metal tool for separating the strands of rope or 
cable in splicing. 

Mold—A paper or wooden pattern, a template. 

Midship—Center of ship. 

Mold loft—A large open room on the floor of which drawings and molds of a ship are 
laid out full size. 

Outboard—Out from center of ship. 

Old man—A rig for holding a drill. 

Oxter—Shell plate around upper part of stern post. 

Pad eye—An eye located on deck for fastening cables. 

Palm—A guard for the hand used in sewing. 

Panhead rivet—A rivet with a pan-shaped head. 

Panting—Form of side stringer. 

Passer—A man who passes rivet to the holder-on and may put it in the rivet hole. 
Passing tongs—Tongs used in passing a rivet. 

Plying hammer—A form of hand-riveting hammer. 

Port—Left direction when facing forward end of ship. 

Rally—Driving wedges 4-5 minutes. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING IN SHIPBUILDING. 


71 


Reverse frames—Angles at top of floor plates. 

Rigging 1 —The ropes which support masts, king posts, boat davits, etc. Also the 
running rigging for derrick booms, derricks, etc. 

Rivet set—A tool used in calking around a rivet. 

Sail needle—A heavy three-cornered needle. 

Serving mallet—A tool used in serving or wrapping cord about a rope or cable. 
Serving board—A tool used in the same way as serving mallet. 

Scarph—A lap joint in wood or metal. 

Scrieve board—A board or temporary floor on which the body plan of a vessel is 
sometimes laid out. 

Shaft tunnel—Passage through which propeller shaft runs. 

Sheer—The slope of a deck fore and aft. 

Sheer plate—Shell plate at upper deck. The line of plating is called the “sheer 
strake.” 

Shell plating—Plating on the outside of the hull. 

Side stringer—A longitudinal girder at side of ship. 

Snap rivet—A rivet driven with a snap die. (Has a round or button head.) 
Spread—Distance at right angles to the center line. 

Spur shore—A slanting brace on either side of ship or ways. 

Stanchion—A post or support, as an awning stanchion or a rail stanchion. Also 
applied to supports under deck beams which in structural work would be called 
“columns. ” 

Staple—An angle bent around shapes and connected to plate, fitted water-tight. 
Starboard—Right direction facing forward end of ship. 

Step—To set in place as applied to a mast. 

Stem casting or frame—A heavy steel casting or forging at stern of vessel support¬ 
ing the rudder and to which the shell plate strakes are fastened. 

Stowage—Everything for support and fastening, as anchor or boat stowage. 
Strake—A line of plates. 

Strake (closing)—A line of plates in which both edges fit over other plates. 

Strut—Support for propeller tail-end shaft used on boats with more than one 
propeller. 

Symbols—Marks of identification. Following partial list is illustrative: 
V.K.FL.C. —Vertical keel floor clip. 

FL. FR. —Floor frame. 

FL. S. —Floor Stiffener. 

B.B. FL. C. —Bilge bracket floor clip. 

S. D. B. B. —Second deck beam bracket. 

E. C. UDK. B. C. —Engine casing upper deck beam clip. 

CK. —Countersink. 

CK. T. S. —Countersink this side. 

CK. 0. S. —Countersink other side. 

Tie plank—The fastening holding the ship from sliding down the ways. 

Tie plate—Narrow deck plate for securing deck beams in place. 

Toggles—Wood timbers around which rope is knotted or fastened. 

Tomahawk—A tool used in finishing a rivet. 

Torpedo—A steel plug forced through a pipe to expand lead tubing for lining. 
Transom—Last main frame of ship attached to the stern framework. 

Ways—Supports for ship at time of launching. 

(а) Ground ways. —Stationary timbers. 

(б) Sliding ways— Timbers moving with the ship sliding over the ground ways. 
Weather deck—Uppermost deck running length of ship. 

Web frames—Large frames built of plates, used as stiffeners. Sometimes called 
“deep frames. ” 


o 



BULLETIN No. 4 


Mechanical and Technical Training 
For Conscripted Men 

(AIR DIVISION 
U. S. SIGNAL CORPS) 


ISSUED BY THE 

ll, S. FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
WASHINGTON 

_ 

JANUARY, 1918 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1918 









I 


C /0*h£ 

t $ £i & 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

MEMBERS. 


David F. Houston, Chairman , 
Secretary of Agriculture. 
William C. Redfield, 

Secretary of Commerce. 
William B. Wilson, 

Secretary of Labor. 

P. P. Claxton, 

Commissioner of Education. 


James P. Munroe, 

Manufacture and Commerce. 
Charles A. Greathouse, 

Agriculture. 
Arthur E. Holder, 

Labor. 


EXECUTIVE STAFF. 


C. A. Prosser, 

Layton S. Hawkins, 

Assistant Director for 

Agricultural Education. 

Lewis H. Carris, 

Assistant Director for 
Industrial Education. 

Cheesman A. Herrick, 

Special Agent for Commercial Education . 


Director. 

Josephine T. Berry, 

Assistant Director for 

Home Economics Education 
Charles H. Winslow, 

Assistant Director for Research. 


All communications should be addressed to 

THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION, WASHINGTON 

D. C. 


D. of I>. 

FEB 9 19i3 




MECHANICAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING 
CLASSES FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


£ 


PART I.—GENERAL INFORMATION. 


FOREWORD. 

Modern warfare is largely a contest of mechanisms. If the United 
States is to win in the present struggle there must be provided 
mechanical appliances superior to those of the enemy and mechanics 
and technicians able to use them more effectively and to keep them 
in better repair. 

For every man who fights there must be at least one other skilled 
in some occupation necessary to effective military work. Such men 
must keep lines of transportation open, communications free and 
rapid, and maintain all the complicated machinery of the Army in 
effective condition. 

Recognizing the need for mechanics and technicians of every kind, 
the Army authorities are seeking to secure an adequate supply of 
men with the proper experience and training. Broadly speaking, 
the plan which has been adopted includes the following activities: 

1. The preparation, so far as possible, of conscripted men before 
they go to the cantonments for occupations needed by the Army. 

2. A census classification of all conscripted men immediately after 
their arrival at the cantonments in order to learn from their previous 
occupations and experience what work they are best qualified to do, 
or for what work they can best be rapidly trained. 

3. Provision for the further training of conscripted men after they 
arrive at cantonments. This training will be either advanced instruc¬ 
tion for those conscripted men who were trained at home before 
going to the cantonment or who had had previous experience in an 
occupation before going to the cantonment; or it will be instruction 
for novices, fitting them to meet as rapidly as possible the occupa¬ 
tional needs of the Army for which longer periods of instruction are 
not necessary. 

This bulletin is concerned entirely with the problem of training 
conscripted men before they leave their homes for the cantonments 
and has nothing to do, excepting incidentally, with the other two 
problems. 





4 TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 

COOPERATION BETWEEN THE FEDERAL BOARD AND THE WAR 

DEPARTMENT. 

Realizing on the one hand the great need for the occupational 
training of the conscripted men and on the other the great help 
which the schools of the country with their equipment and their 
earnest desire, to be of service can render, the War Department has 
authorized the Federal board to undertake schemes of training for 
conscripted men with the States and schools cooperating with the 
Federal board. This authorization is given in Appendix A, Part I. 
In the authorization the chiefs of the various divisions of the War 
Department are instructed to make their wants known - to the 
Federal board so that it may organize and supervise training designed 
successfully to meet the various needs. 

MECHANICS AND TECHNICIANS IN THE ARMY. 

Some idea of the large number of mechanical and technical occupa¬ 
tions required in the successful operation of an army in time of war 
can be gained from the list of occupations recognized by Army offi¬ 
cials as fundamental, given in Appendix B, Part I. 

For obvious reasons it is unwise to make known in a public bulletin 
the exact number of persons needed for specific occupations. In fact, 
it is impossible at present to state these accurately. The demand is so 
great, however, for mechanics and technicians that the schools may 
proceed in the training of conscripted men, confident that those well- 
prepared men will be utilized to advantage. 

GROUNDWORK SCHOOLS AND FINISHING SCHOOLS. 

For clearness concerning the training of men for Army occupations 
it is well to draw a sharp line of distinction between what may be 
called a groundwork school and a finishing school. A groundwork 
school is one that gives elementary instruction, leaving to the finishing 
school the task of training in the more advanced or specific and 
detailed technique peculiar to the occupation as it is carried on in the 
Army. Evening classes for conscripted men, fitting them in part at 
home for Army work, are groundwork schools. Whether the Army 
gives the finishing school work at the cantonment or at special schools 
designed for the purpose, the evening classes here proposed should 
serve as preparatory institutions for the accomplishing of two tasks— 
that of winnowing or selecting men for groundwork training and there¬ 
fore for subsequent Army service; and that of giving them elementary 
preparation in the fundamentals of the .occupation itself. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


O 


THE SERVICE TO THE COUNTRY OF EVENING CLASSES FOR CON¬ 
SCRIPTED MEN. 

These classes would at least serve— 

(a) To stimulate many conscripted men to fit themselves for 
specific efficiency in the Army wherein they are due to serve; 

(b) To give these men a chance so to prepare themselves in part at 
least before the call comes; 

(f) To sort these men effectively by dropping those unable to make 
satisfactory progress; 

(d) To furnish a good groundwork course, bringing the students 
to a point, where, under favorable conditions, they should be able to 
meet the immediate needs of the Army for men so trained. 

From this point information is given in the form of answers to 
specific questions. 

ENROLLMENT OF PUPILS. 

Who may be admitted to classes? 

(a) Only conscripted men not yet called to the cantonments. 

(b) Only those conscripted men who have passed the physical 
examination and have been placed in class 1 or class 2 by the exemp¬ 
tion board, as hereinafter described. 

(c) Only those conscripted men who, as the result of conference 
or tests before registration, show that they have the background 
of previous experience as well as the ability necessary to undertake 
the work of the classes successfully, as hereinafter explained. 

( d) Those not fit should be dropped at once, since one of the first 
purposes of the classes should be to determine early what men are 
not fit to follow the occupation for which thp classes give training. 

(e) Girls and women; persons under military age; persons uncon¬ 
scripted; persons conscripted but failing to pass the physical examina¬ 
tion; persons conscripted but classified in classes other than classes 
1 and 2 by the exemption board; and persons who are seeking free 
training for service with private concerns, should be excluded. 

What conscripted men, if any, should be given preference in registra¬ 
tion for a class? 

Since most of the occupations described in this bulletin are skilled, 
it is evident that the best service the evening classes can render is 
to enroll men with experience in the occupation and to give them 
additional instruction. Preference should therefore be given to 
men in the order of length of previous experience. On the other hand, 
since it is necessary that the classes should give instruction to as 
many enlisted men as possible before they go to the cantonments, 
preference should be given to applicants in the order in which they 
will be called. 

When a class can accommodate all applicants this dilemma will 
not arise. It is the belief of the board that where the dilemma 
presents itself the school authorities should give preference to men 
in the order of the length of their previous experience, irrespective 


6 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


of the date of their call to the cantonment. The aim of the school 
should be through continuing classes to train successive groups of 
men and to give the training to these men, as far as possible, individu¬ 
ally rather than by groups. The larger the amount of previous ex¬ 
perience the more quickly can the individual student be put through 
this groundwork instruction, thus hastening rather than retarding 
the preparation of the men. Moreover, the seryice of the evening 
classes to the conscripted men will be measured from the standpoint 
of what the students are able to do at the cantonment, and their 
showing there will be much better when the evening class instruction 
has been based upon large previous civilian experience in the 
occupation. 

Wherever necessary, a waiting list of men to be notified when there 
is a vacancy in the class should be compiled. The best way to con¬ 
duct this work is to deal with individuals, issuing a certificate to a 
student as soon as he reaches certain standards of efficiency, and 
filling his place at once. The general principle to be followed is 
that it is a waste of time and effort to train for Army occupations 
men not certain to be called in the second and succeeding drafts. 
How this is to be accomplished by the use of information in posses¬ 
sion of exemption boards is described later. 

EXTENT OF COURSE. 

How long should the classes be continued? 

They should begin at once and should continue until all those 
seeking training have been prepared or the emergency no longer 
exists. The length of time necessary to attain proficiency depends 
on a number of factors—as, for example, the number of hours per 
day or per week that the class is in session, the ability and appli¬ 
cation of the student, and the standard which he is expected to 
reach. Instruction should be carried on six nights per week. Stu¬ 
dents should be dealt with individually and should be expected to 
attend at least eight hours of instruction each week. This amount 
will be necessary in order to give the required training before most 
of these men are needed for actual service. 

It is impossible at this time to determine the length of a course 
of instruction in terms of occupations or individuals, as this involves 
at least all the factors just mentioned. Doubtless as the work 
progresses it will be possible in some lines to establish standards 
and to set up definite lengths of courses for different types of men 
according to previous experience and ability. 

It is certainly safe to say, however, that classes should be organ¬ 
ized at once; they should be operated six nights per week; that 
students should attend not less than four nights each week, with a 
total of eight hours of instruction; and that plans should be made 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


7 


to operate classes continuously and indefinitely, with no thought, 
in face of the great crisis, of abandoning them during the summer. 
Indeed, so great is the emergency that it may be necessary to ask 
for the establishment of day classes during not only the school year, 
but the summer holidays as well. 

OBTAINING STUDENTS. 

How may conscripted men best be informed of the opportunity for 
training? 

The first step for local school authorities to take is to secure the 
names of the conscripted men of the community who have been 
classified by the exemption board as belonging to class 1 or class 2. 
The only place to obtain this information is from the local exemption 
board of the community in which the classes are to be established. 
In connection with the classifying of conscripted men, a volumi¬ 
nous questionnaire must be filled out by every conscripted man not 
yet called to a cantonment. The ultimate object is to classify the 
men into five groups, called classes 1 to 5. In Appendix C, Part I, 
the basis is given on which this grouping of men is made for each 
class. Class 1 includes all who pass the physical examination 
successfully and have no exemption of any kind to plead. This is 
the first source of supply for the next call to the cantonment, and 
from it the men will be called in the order of their draft numbers 
according to the original drawing. Class 2 contains the names of 
all those who have passed the physical examination successfully. 
(See Appendix C, Part I.) 

Unless the war reaches proportions not yet anticipated, it is 
probable that the conscripted men of classes 1 and 2 will furnish 
the larger part of the entire quota of soldiers required for the National 
Army during the next two years. 

In filling out his questionnaire the conscripted man is required to 
answer many questions which in no way concern the establishing 
of training classes. Among the information furnished by him, 
however, is the following: Occupations followed during the last 10 
years and the amount of time given to each in years and months; 
the occupation for which he regards himself as being best qualified; 
his willingness or unwillingness to attend an evening class giving 
instruction for some Army occupation; and the occupation in the 
Army for which he is willing to take training. The questions cov¬ 
ering this information will be found in Appendix D, Part I. 

It should be noted in passing that the questionnaire includes the 
list of Army occupations given in Appendix B, Part I. This list is 
designed to assist the conscripted man in deciding for what Army 
occupation, if any, he desires to be trained through evening classes. 


8 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


Every consideration requires that the local school authorities 
should make themselves familiar with so much of the questionnaire 
as will furnish the information just outlined regarding the conscripted 
man. Through an arrangement with the Office of the Provost Mar¬ 
shal General (see Appendix G, Part I), the Federal board and its 
representatives (which will be, of course, the State boards for voca¬ 
tional education and the schools operating in the States in coopera¬ 
tion with such boards) have access to the records of the local exemp¬ 
tion boards, in order to obtain the answers of the conscripted man 
to the questions as to his previous occupational experience and 
training and his attitude toward and desire for training. 

When this information has been gathered, the local school authori¬ 
ties will be in possession of the name, draft number, place of residence, 
and occupational history and desire, so far as his training is concerned, 
of every conscripted man in classes, 1 and 2. No attention should be 
paid to men in classes 3,4, and 5, as they are not at present a factor 
in the Army personnel. On the basis of this information the local 
school authorities should proceed to advertise the courses which they 
purpose giving. 

A circular should be sent by the school authorities to these con¬ 
scripted men asking them to appear for registration, and furnishing 
all necessary information as to what is offered and why. 

In addition, there should be extensive publicity through the press 
and commercial and civic organizations. It is suggested that copies 
of the circular letter addressed to conscripted men be sent to the 
newspapers, together with a statement of the courses of study 
to be given. Similar material should be sent to various organiza¬ 
tions, and, in addition, there should be individual personal effort to 
secure the interest of newspaper editors and writers, public men, and 
all who can disseminate information either verbally or by posting 
notices. 

Publicity should cover all such points as these: 

Need for trained men in the Army. 

Courses offered. 

Opportunity for conscripted men of classes 1 and 2. 

Arrangements for a week of preliminary registration. 

Place and date for opening classes. 

Hours during which they will be in session. 

Opportunities for better pay and for more important service in the 
Army for those taking the courses. 

The circular letter should announce specific courses to those con¬ 
scripted men who desire to take them and who have the experience 
and training enabling them to profit by the instruction. This means, 
for example, that a course for motor-truck drivers should be announced 
by letter to automobile repair men and drivers of truck and pleasure 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


9 


vehicles, but not to carpenters, blacksmiths, clerks, or men expert 
in driving horses. This circular letter should furnish, in addition to 
the announcement of the specific course, all the other points of 
information covered in the above description of the publicity. 

Copy of a suggested type letter is contained in Appendix E, Part I. 

TESTING AND CLASSIFYING STUDENTS. 

As already stated, the small number of hours available for even¬ 
ing school instruction makes it necessary for such work to be built 
upon a background of previous experience in the same line. Novices 
can not be trained in any occupation requiring a considerable body 
of skill or knowledge in the 200 hours of evening school instruction 
usually available in any one evening school year. 

Therefore, when the conscripted man appears as an applicant for 
a course the school authorities must first determine whether his 
previous experience establishes the presumption that he will be able 
to attain a reasonable standard of proficiency in the limited period 
available for evening school training, and preference should be given 
to men for entrance to the class in the order of the length of their 
previous experience and training in the same or a kindred line. This 
makes it necessary to test more or less roughly the skill and knowl¬ 
edge of the applicant. This test may be based upon the man’s 
statements or upon credentials showing his previous experience and 
his success therein. Or it may be an actual, practical test of ability 
to execute a project or to carry on a process requiring either manipu¬ 
lative skill, technical knowledge, or both. Such practical tests, 
being much more satisfactory than credentials, should be given 
whenever possible. 

When it is evident that the applicant does not possess experience 
or ability necessary to do the work properly, he should be dropped at 
the outset, since it is a waste of time and money to attempt to train 
men for work for which they are not fitted. Furthermore, to retain 
untrainable or unadaptable men may prevent the admission of other, 
better qualified students. 

COURSES TO BE TAUGHT. 

In general, courses of instruction will be offered for conscripted 
men seeking preparation for Army occupations in the different divi¬ 
sions of the service. The courses of study for the different fines vary 
so greatly that the description of them will be given in Part II of 
each of the bulletins to be devoted to the preparation of conscripted 
men for the needs of specific divisions of the Army. They will there¬ 
fore not be given here. 

32884—18-2 


10 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


CERTIFICATES. 

What evidence of work done should the school give the student? 

Each student upon leaving the class should receive some written 
evidence of what he has done in order that he may present it at the 
cantonment. No student should be allowed to withdraw from the 
class without such written statement. 

Statements should he of two kinds: 

To those students who have reached the required standard, there 
is to be issued a certificate of proficiency giving the following infor¬ 
mation: Name of student, draft number, residence, number of hours 
of attendance on the course, name of school, and ability as shown 
by tests. This certificate should also state that the instruction was 
given in accordance with the provisions for training issued by the 
Federal Board for Vocational Education in cooperation with the 
United States Army. 

Those students who for any reason fail to reach the required stand¬ 
ard will receive a statement of attendance furnishing, with the excep¬ 
tion of its caption, exactly the same information as the certificate. 
The proficiency certified to will obviously be less than the standard. 

It is urged that school authorities take pains to equip every man 
with this evidence, since it is highly important that the Army 
authorities should have information, both through these certificates 
and through reports made to the Federal board, concerning every 
man who has enrolled in these courses and has taken any instruction 
at all. 

Who is to provide certificate and statement of attendance ? 

Both will be supplied to the authorities of the school carrying on 
the class by the Federal board through the State boards for voca¬ 
tional education. There will also be furnished, through the same 
channels, a blank record of attendance for use by all schools. They 
are urged to follow the suggestions given in these certificates and 
blanks in order that there may be uniformity in statement and con¬ 
venience for filing at the cantonments. 
c 

What shall the student do with certificate or statement of attendance? 

He will take this with him to the cantonment and present it to 
the personnel officer as evidence of work done by him in preparing 
for an occupation useful to the Army. 

RECORDS AND REPORTS. 

What records shall the school keep of these students? 

Records similar to those used for any other class of students going 
through the school. With this neither the Federal board nor the 
United States Army is concerned, excepting in so far as such records 
are essential to the reporting of facts to the Federal board. 



TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


11 


What report will the school be asked to make to the Federal board 
regarding these students? 

The Army expects the Federal board to supply information regard¬ 
ing the number of students attending these courses, so as to deter¬ 
mine how far reliance can be placed on them as a means for supplying 
trained men. It also expects to secure through the Federal board 
detailed information concerning each man who has taken a course 
of instruction. Blanks will be sent to the schools by the Federal 
board through the State board for vocational education for use in 
reporting enrollment and all other necessary facts. 

GUARANTIES TO STUDENTS. 

What assurance can be given the student that he will be assigned to 
work in the service for which he has been trained? 

The Army needs men skilled in many occupations, and while the 
training camps will handle the strictly military training, it is looking 
to the schools to furnish special vocational training classes. The 
names of conscripted men attending such classes will be filed with 
the Army authorities at Washington, who will see to it that when 
they reach cantonments they will be assigned to appropriate duties. 
Through the occupational census taken at the cantonments, the fact 
of this additional training insures that a man. will be assigned to 
work for which he has made special preparation. The personnel 
officers at the cantonments will have a record of such men and the 
men themselves will have evidence in the shape of the certificate of 
record of attendance upon classes. They shoidd be urged to carry 
it with them to camp and to present it to the personnel officer. 

' TOTAL NUMBER TO BE TAUGHT. 

How many students should the school undertake to train? 

It is intended to prepare no more conscripted men in a given 
occupation than the Army needs: and the Federal board will make 
every attempt to adjust supply to demand. Because of present 
uncertainty as to what many of the schools will be able to accom¬ 
plish, it is impossible to prorate classes among either different com¬ 
munities or different schools. It may be possible to do this, how¬ 
ever, after the schools have reported their initial registration and 
the work is well under way. It is suggested that schools go forward 
with confidence, secure as many men as they can for the first class 
or classes organized, and organize as many classes as may be neces¬ 
sary to deal with this group. Adjustment in a particular course of 
study will be made by the Federal board with regard to the quota 
for the different schools and communities as soon as reports as to 
initial enrollment have come in from all the schools. 


12 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


FREE TUITION. 

Should tuition be free? 

The Federal board and the Army authorities believe that every 
consideration requires free tuition for conscripted men. Many are 
leaving home at great sacrifice; some with much uncertainty as to 
how those left behind, are to be supported. Since they are giving 
their all for the Nation, it is not too much to ask that the schools of 
the country meet the slight per capita cost of preparing them to fight 
effectively. Furthermore, with tuition free, more students of the 
right kind will be attracted to the work. 

THE TEACHER. 

What kind of a teacher? 

The teacher for any evening class for conscripted men should have 
had actual, practical experience, at least as a civilian, in the occu¬ 
pation for which he is giving instruction. 

What should this teacher be paid? v 

To secure a desirable man, efficient and able to command respect, 
proper pay must be offered. The amount varies, but the prevailing 
rates are from S3 (the minimum) to $5 (the maximum). With a 
class of 25 students, the cost of the instruction would be about 12 
cents per night, or 6 cents per hour, for each student. 

RELATION OF FEDERAL BOARD TO STATE BOARD. 

'In the establishing and operation of this work the Federal board 
expects to. deal through State boards for vocational education rather 
than with local schools. The Federal board, however, charged with 
the responsibility of getting this training done by the schools of the 
country, will expect State boards to promote this work vigorously, 
not only through public but, so far as is possible, through private 
schools as well. To this end it will be necessary for State boards to 
secure ihe funds necessary to employ and to pay the traveling ex¬ 
penses of a man competent to promote, organize, inspect, and super¬ 
vise all the classes for conscripted men established under this and 
succeeding bulletins. Wherever it is impossible to secure efficient 
action through State boards, the Federal board will hold itself free 
to deal with local schools direct, in order that the task may be properly 
discharged. Experience shows that it will require from $4,000 to 
$5,000 annually to pay the salary and traveling expenses of a man 
competent to carry on this work properly. He will be under the 
control of the State board for vocational education, who will, of 
course, select and pay him, as well as direct his work. ' 

A word of caution in regard to the relationship of State boards 
for vocational education with private schools seems opportune. 



TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


13 


The Federal board earnestly desires to deal, as far as possible, with 
one authority in each State, thus preventing duplication and friction. 
Both public and private schools should not only be eligible for but 
should be urged to undertake this work. These schools may be of 
either secondary or collegiate grade. Any institution or organiza¬ 
tion willing to undertake the work skould be enlisted whenever 
possible. 

State boards for vocational education will, of course, recognize 
that they can not exercise the same degree of control and direction 
over courses established by private institutions as over those in 
public schools, particularly in those receiving aid under the Smith- 
Hughes Act. 

What seems to be necessary is a diplomatic arrangement whereby 
the State board shall encourage and assist in every way permitted 
the establishment of courses by private institutions willing to under¬ 
take the work. Beyond this, it is probable that State boards can 
do nothing except secure information on the same blanks used with 
public institutions and furnished by the Federal board. 

Plans will be provided whereby local schools may report to State 
boards for vocational education in duplicate form so that the Fed¬ 
eral board at Washington may be kept constantly in touch with the 
progress of the work and the number of conscripted men being 
reached. 

FEDERAL AID. 

The Federal board has ruled (see Appendix F, Part I) that moneys 
. from the fund for industrial and trade education under the Smith- 
Hughes Act may be used for classes approved by the State board 
for vocational education, giving training for Army occupations to 
conscripted men certain to be called in the same way and to the 
same extent as in the case of evening industrial and trade classes for 
civilians. That is to say, where the State board for vocational 
education approves an evening class for conscripted men, one-half 
the salary of the instructor or instructors may be paid by the State 
board out of Federal moneys. 

DAY CLASSES. 

In some cases it may be possible for institutions to organize day 
classes for conscripted men. This is true of an engineering college 
organizing classes for students registered in class 1 or class 2, and 
might even take place in the case of conscripted men from the build¬ 
ing trades, who, being out of employment during the winter months, 
might be dealt with in dull-season day classes. So, possibly, in the 
case of men employed at night who could attend school during the 
day. Such day classes would have a considerable advantage over 


14 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


evening classes, because of the greater length of time available for 
work. The general principles hereinbefore set forth with regard to 
organization and conduct apply equally to day classes. 

UTILIZATION OF PRIVATE PLANTS. 

$ 

When schools do not possess the proper kind of equipment for 
these special courses and when such equipment is too expensive or 
elaborate to be obtained immediately, it will often be possible to make 
arrangements with the owners of industrial plants whereby the equip¬ 
ment of such plants may be used at night or on Sundays for purposes 
of instruction. In such cases it will be found desirable and expedient 
to employ foremen from these plants as instructors or at least as 
supervisors of the instruction. Through the Council of National 
Defense the Federal board has at its disposal a classification of the 
industries of the United States showing location of industrial plants, 
size of plants, kind of equipment, nature of product turned out, etc. 
As rapidly as it is possible to compile this information it will be placed 
in the hands of State boards for use as above suggested. It is the 
belief of the board, based on considerable experience, that owners of 
private industrial plants will, on the whole, be glad to cooperate with 
the Government in this emergency program. 

Attention should be called in this connection to the fact that 
Federal funds can be used under the Smith-ITughes Act for the part 
payment of teachers in classes operated in private industrial estab¬ 
lishments. Federal funds, however, may be used only when such 
courses are established by the public schools, controlled by the 
public schools, and the instructors are paid, so far as the State or 
local community is concerned, from public funds. 


APPENDIX A—PART I. 

Letter of Authorization from Adjutant General. 

November 3, 1917. 

From: The Adjutant General of-the Army. 

To: The Commanding Generals of all Departments and the Chiefs of Bureaus. 
Subject: Utilization of the educational facilities in the United States. 

1. The Secretary of War directs that you be informed as follows: 

(a) The Federal Board for Vocational Education, authorized by act of Congress, 
February 25, 1917, of which Dr. C. A. Prosser is Director, is now organized and is 
in close cooperation with the vocational schools of the country. This board is pre¬ 
pared to institute a comprehensive system of preliminary training of men of the 
second and subsequent drafts prior to their reporting at cantonments. It is proposed 
that in general the following would govern: 

(b) Ail preliminary training would be voluntary, but would be limited to the actual 
needs of the Army as indicated by the several departments. Only conscripted men 
due for the second and subsequent drafts should be admitted and" only those physi¬ 
cally fit. For this purpose preliminary physical examinations would be necessary 
for those not yet examined by an exemption board. Classes would be held for the 
most part in evenings, Saturday afternoons, and Sundays, thus allowing prospective 



TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


15 


drafted men to continue their regular occupation up to the last minute. Students 
should be dealt with individually, considering classes as a continuing process. Cer¬ 
tificates of proficiency would be issued to men as they qualified. These certificates 
should be taken by the student to the cantonment as an evidence of the work done 
in preparing for an occupation which the Army needs. Equipment and instructors 
would be furnished by the schools cooperating in the scheme, except in the rare cases 
where Government aid might be desirable ana necessary. There should be no tuition 
fee for the student. 

(c) Records of numbers under training in any subject or locality as well as informa¬ 
tion as to name, residence, status as to draft call, cantonment to which they would 
be called, occupation for which they took training, other occupations in which they 
have had experience, etc., are being compiled by the board and will be available 
for information of chiefs of bureaus. 

( d ) It is the desire of the Secretary of War that the chiefs of bureaus maintain close 
cooperation with this board, furnishing such information as to number of men desired 
to be trained, necessary courses, etc. For this purpose the chiefs of bureaus will 
deal directly with Dr. Prosser. 

H. G. Learnard, Adjutant General. 


APPENDIX B— PART I. 

Army List of Occupation's for which Specially Trained Men are Necessary 


1. Accountant. 

2. Artist, dramatic and otherwise. 

3. Auto and gas engine man. 

. (a) Factory. 

(b) Garage. 

(c) Ignition system. 

( d) Marine engines. 

4. Auto and motor truck driver. 

5. Baker. 

6. Band instrument. 

7. Barber. 

8. Blacksmith. 

(a) Helper. 

( b) Forger. 

9. Boatman. 

10. Boiler maker. 

11. Bookkeeper. 

12. Butcher. 

13. Canvas worker. 

14. Carpenter. 

(a) Bridge. 

( b ) Cabinetmaker. 

(c) House. 

( d) Ship. 

15. Chemical industry worker. 

16. Clerical worker. 

17. Concrete worker. 

18. Contractor. 

19. Cook. 

20. Dentist. 

21. Detective. 

22. Draftsman. 

(а) Architectural. 

(б) Mechanical. 

(c) Topographical. 

23. Druggist. 

24. Electrician. 

(a) Instruments repair. 

( b) Motors and dynamos. 

(c) Outside work. 

(d) Wiring. 


25. Engineer, graduate. 

(a) Automotive. 

( b) Chemical. 

(c) Civil. 

• (d) Electrical. 

(e) Mechanical. 

(/) Mining. 

(g) Sanitary. 

26. Factory worker. 

27. Farmer. 

28. Farrier. 

29. Fire fighter. 

30. Forest ranger. 

31. Foundry man. 

(«) Core maker and molder. 
( b ) Furnace man. 

32. Grocer. 

33. Guard. 

34. Gunsmith. 

35. Harness maker. 

36. Horseman. 

37. Horseshoer. 

38. Laborer. 

39. Lawyer. 

40. Lineman. 

(a) Telegraph. 

( b) Telephone. 

41. Locksmith. 

42. Longshoreman. 

43. Lumberman. 

44. Machinist. 

(а) Drill press. 

(б) General mechanic. 

(c) Grinding machine. 

(d) Lathe. 

( e) Miller and planer. 

(f) Tool maker. 

45. Mason. 

46. Merchant. 

47. Millwright. 





16 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


Army list of occupations for which specially trained men are necessary— Continued. 


48. Miner. 

(a) Digging and loading. 

(b) Drill. 

(c) Explosives. 

(d) Timbering. 

(e) Track laying. 

49. Moving-picture expert. 

50. Nurse. 

51. Painter. 

(а) House. 

(б) Sign. 

(c) Scene. 

52. Pattern maker. 

53. Physician. 

54. Plasterer. 

55. Plumbing trades. 

56. Policeman. 

57. Printer. 

58. Quarryman. 

59. Railroad man. 

(a) Construction. 

(b) Operation. 

(c) Maintenance. 

(d) Repair. 

60. Railway motorman. 

61. Rigger. 

(a) Bridge. 

( b) Building. 

(c) Ship. 

62. Salesman. 


63. Sawmill man. 

64. Seafaring man. 

65. Sheet-metal worker. 

(а) Copper. 

(б) Iron. 

(c) Tin. 

66. Shipbuilder. 

67. Shoemaker. 

68. Stableman. 

69. Steam engineer. 

(а) Motive. 

(б) Stationary. 

70. Stenographer. 

71. Stockkeeper. 

72. Structural iron and steel worker. 

73. Student. 

74. Surveyor. 

75. Tailor. 

76. Teacher. 

77. Teamster. 

78. Telegrapher. 

79. Telephone operator. 

80. Telephone repairman. 

81. Tile man. 

82. Typewriter. 

83. Veterinary. 

84. Watchmaker. 

85. Welder, acetylene, etc. 

86. Wheelwright. 

87. Wireless operator. 


APPENDIX C—PART I. 

Definition of Classes 1 and 2 as Given in the Selective Service Regulations. 

class 1.' 

Single man without dependent relatives. 

Married man with or without children or father of motherless children who has 
habitually failed to support his family. 

Married man dependent on wife for support. 

Married man with or without children or father of motherless children, man not 
usefully engaged, family supported by income independent of his labor. 

Unskilled farm laborer. 

Unskilled industrial laborer. 

Registrant by or in respect of whom no deferred classification is claimed or made. 

Registrant who fails to submit Questionnaire and in respect of whom no deferred 
classification is claimed or made. 

All registrants not included in any other division in this schedule. 

class 2. 

Married man with children or father of motherless children, where such wife or 
children or such motherless children are not mainly dependent upon his labor for 
support, for the reason that there are other reasonably certain sources of adequate 
support (excluding earnings or possible earnings from the labor of the wife) available, 
and that the removal of the registrant will not deprive such dependents of Support. 

Married man without children whose wife, although the registrant is engaged in a 
useful occupation, is not mainly dependent upon his labor for support, for the reason 
that the wife is skilled in some special class of work which she is physically able to 
perform and in which she is employed or in which there is an immediate opening for 
her under conditions that will enable her to support herself decently and without 
suffering or hardship. 

Necessary skilled farm laborer in necessary agricultural enterprise. 

Necessary skilled industrial laborer in necessary industrial enterprise. 





TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


17 


APPENDIX D PART I. 

Series I of the questions which conscripted men are required to answer by the 
Selective Service Regulations promulgated by the President November 8, 1917, 
includes, among others, the following: 

Q. 2. If you are employed, give your employer’s name and address.—A. 2. 


Q. 3. Give below all the occupations at which you have worked during the last 
10 years, including your occupation on May 18, 1917, and since that date, 
and^the length of time you have served in each occupation: 

(Occupation.) (Months.) (Years.). 

(Occupation.) (Months.) (Years.) 

(Occupation.) (Months.) (Years.) 


Q. 4. 
Q. 5. 
Q. 6. 

Q. 9. 


(Occupation.) (Months.) (Years.) 

How many hours per week have you worked in the occupation or occupations 

above named during the period since May 18, 1917?—A. 4. 

In what occupation do you consider yourself most proficient?—A. 5. 


Would you be willing to take free evening school instructions, fitting you for 
service in some occupation in the Army before you are called to camp?— 
A. 6. 


(To be “yes” or “no.”) 

Schooling: 

Grade reached in school. Years in high school. 

Years in college . Name of college and subjects 

of specialization. 


Years in technical school . Name of school 

and course pursued. 

Underline the languages you speak well: English—French—German. 
State any other languages you speak. 


Question 10 in the same series enumerates no less than 87 occupations, and the 
conscripted man is required to indicate those occupations in which he has worked as 
well as those in which he is expert, giving also the numbers of years of experience in 
each. See page 15. 


APPENDIX E—PART I. 

SUGGESTED LETTER TO BE SENT TO CONSCRIPTED MEN. 

My Dear Sir: 

It appears from the records of the exemption board for your district that you have 
been examined and classified in class (number of class in the draft). 

The (name of school) school has, in answer to a request of the War Department, 
decided to open a class in (subject or occupation), provided the registration is suffi¬ 
cient to justify its operation. 

An examination of your occupational history during the last 10 years shows that 
your experience makes you eligible for entrance to such a class. We urge you to 
enroll in the class and earnestly pursue its work. In this way you will make yourself 
of larger service to the country in its time of need and at the same time lift yourself 
from the rank of the ordinary soldier into a position as a noncommissioned officer with 
a larger rate of pay. 

This course will be carried on at the (name of school) school, located at (street 

address). The work will begin on the.day of., and will be carried on 

for.nights per week, between the hours of - --and.p. m. The course 

will continue as long as necessary to give the training required. 

A week of registration for this work begins on the night of.and will continue 

each night from.to. Will you not on one of these nights, preferably 

32884—18-3 




























18 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


early in the week, present yourself for conference with the school authorities, with 
the end in view of enrolling for the course? 

There will be no charge for the instruction in this course, which will be free. 

Please let me know at your earliest convenience your decision. 

Very truly, yours, 

Where the school authorities feel that the expense is not too great, the work of 
registering the men would be very greatly furthered if a self-addressed postal card 
could be inclosed, which would contain a statement to be signed by the men, reading 
as follows: 

., 1918. 

I do (do not) expect to enroll in the class for conscripted men in (subject or occupa¬ 
tion). 

(Signed) . 


APPENDIX F—PART I. 

RESOLUTION ADOPTED BY THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
NOVEMBER 9. 1917, ON. USE OF FEDERAL l FUNDS FOR TRAINING CONSCRIPTED 

MEN. 


That whereas a national emergency exists requiring the prompt training of con¬ 
scripted men who have passed the physical examination for mechanical and technical 
service in different branches of the Army service, and whereas it appears that stimu¬ 
lation from the Federal Government is necessary in order to secure prompt and ade¬ 
quate action by the States and schools, the standing committee recommends to the 
Federal board that in the case of such conscripted men Federal funds be available 
for instruction along mechanical and technical lines needed in the Army, on the ground 
that these men have been conscripted and called into the service and that instruction 
preparing them either for more effective work in lines which they have been follow¬ 
ing, or for promotion in the service, is approved. The Federal board authorizes the 
States to use Federal funds in this way, but at the same time notifies them that this 
action is not to be regarded as a precedent in the interpretation of the expression 
“supplemental to day employment” given in section 11 of the Smith-Hughes Act 
where evening-school work is defined. Furthermore, the use of Federal funds in 
the training of such conscripted men must, of course, be for instruction of less than 
college grade and will be subject to all the requirements of the Smith-Hughes Act 
and the policies of the Federal board in every particular. 


APPENDIX G-PART I. 

TELEGRAM FROM GEN. CROWDER TO GOVERNORS OF ALL STATES. 

December 17, 1917. 

To Governors of all States: 

Number A nine nine eight. Please communicate the following to local boards by 
mail: Under the provisions of section eleven. S. S. R., the Secretary of War authorizes 
duly accredited representatives of the Federal Board for Vocational Education to 
inspect series one of the questionnaires of registrants at such times and under such 
circumstances as will not interfere with the process of classification. Such representa¬ 
tives must present a letter or certificate from the Federal Board for Vocational Edu¬ 
cation attesting their authority to represent that board. 


Crowder. 





PART II.—TRAINING FOR MECHANICAL AND TECHNICAL 
OCCUPATIONS IN THE AVIATION SERVICE. 


The general policy of the Federal board in issuing bulletins on the 
training of conscripted men for Army occupations is to get out 
a separate text for each branch of the service. The present bulletin 
deals exclusively with the Aviation Service. Part I discussed the 
general questions involved in the establishment and operation of 
classes for conscripted men for all branches of the Army. Part II 
deals with specific occupations connected with the Aviation Service. 

It must be remembered that by the distribution of men gathered 
at the cantonments through successive draft calls, the Aviation 
Service, like other branches of the Army, will be able to secure 
many mechanics and technicians able either to discharge the work of 
different occupations or to be readily trained therefor. 

According to statements made by Army officials, there will be a 
shortage of trained men for certain occupations. The list of these, 
together with the estimated number of men required from all sources 
prior to June 1, 1918, is as follows: 

Mechanic# and technician# needed by the Aviation Service. 


Cabinetmakers and carpenters. 14, 400 

Chauffeurs.. . .. . . 14,400 

Coppersmiths and metal workers. . 14,400 

Motor repairmen_ 21,600 

Instrument repairmen 7, 200 

Ignition and magneto repairmen 3, 600 

Welders_ 3, 600 


Total ... _ 79,200 


This bulletin will take up the occupations given above, for which the 
Aviation Service authorities state there is need for the training 
which they have requested the Federal board to provide. 

COURSES OF STUDY. 

It has been very difficult, for reasons which need not be given here, 
to secure that definite, detailed information regarding the content of 
courses of study and standards of proficiency which the schools 
undertaking this work should have. The information here given 
represents the best which the office of the Federal board has been 

19 










20 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


able to secure. It will be supplemented at the earliest possible 
moment with more definite information. 

This supplementary information will cover standards of admis¬ 
sion to courses, standards of proficiency to be required from pupils 
as the result of training, and the arrangement of the material in 
short unit courses, which experience shows to be the most successful 
method of dealing with the training of conscripted men in evening 
classes. In the meantime it is felt that the information given below 
is sufficient to enable schools to go forward with confidence in the 
promotion of the courses of training suggested. 

ELIGIBILITY FOR ADMISSION TO COURSES. 

Speaking generally, most of the courses outlined below require 
at the outset a certain amount of previous experience or training 
either in those occupations or processes covered by the course or in 
an occupation containing processes akin to them. For example, 
the course for cabinetmakers and carpenters, which in reality is a 
course for wood specialists in airplane work, could not be taken 
successfully by persons without previous experience in carpentry 
and joinery, cabinetmaking, or pattern making. 

On the other hand, for some occupations, such as motor car and 
truck driving, training can be given successfully to those having 
only such elementary knowledge of a motor car as is gained from 
ordinary driving. In this case admission to the course would 
involve nothing more than evidence that the applicant had had 
at least experience in driving a pleasure car. 

Requirements for admission must at this time be stated broadly 
and roughly. With growing experience the schools will soon be 
able to determine more accurately the experience prerequisite to 
any given course. 

OUTLINE OF COURSES. 

CABINETMAKERS AND CARPENTERS—WOOD SPECIALISTS ON 
AIRPLANE WORK. 

Men in this work are called upon for repair and replacement 
work of the wooden parts of airplanes. The major part of the 
work consists in shaping wood, splicing frames and jointing the 
parts together, and regluing propeller blades. 

Prerequisites .—The source of supply for this course must be 
found in men who have served in trades involving the working of 
wood by hand, as patternmakers, carpenters and joiners, and cabinet¬ 
makers for one or more years. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


21 


Course: 

Woods used in planes 
Kinds. 

Characteristics and strength of each. 

Special use of each. Why? 

Method of working each. 

Recognition. 

(Samples should be available for inspection and working.) 
Sectional shapes used. 

Joints— 

Kinds used in airplane work. 

Shaping wood for joints. • 

Limiting size. 

Factor of safety. 

Each student should become proficient in making close- 
fitting joints, using pine wood without glue or fastenings. 
Splicing— 

Methods used. 

Experience in splicing white pine, without glue or fasten¬ 
ing, making close fits. 

Glue— 

Kinds, value of each. 

Use of glue joints. 

Principle of gluing. 

Preparation of glue. 

Preparation of joint. 

Experience in gluing joints previously made. 

Fastening (without and with glue)— 

Lashing, cord, tape. 

Bolting. 

Pinning or doweling. 

Experience in preparing each one. 

Repairing and regluing— 

Preparation of broken parts for splicing. 

Preparation of unglued surface for regluing. 

Models— 

Made from dimensioned sketches. 

Made from blue prints. 

Made from assemblage of broken parts. 

Field sketching— 

Sketching and dimension parts of broken pieces—free¬ 
hand for replacement. 

Proficiency— 

Student should be competent to splice, glue, sketch, and 
work from drawings accurately and rapidly before re¬ 
ceiving certificate of proficiency. 

Students receiving this certificate are not expected to get 
much additional training at the cantonment: hence 
must be proficient. 


22 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


COPPERSMITHS AND SHEET-METAL WORKERS. 

This line of service involves the shaping and fitting of small metal 
parts to planes, connecting up gasoline and metal fittings, and gen¬ 
eral adjustment and repair of the steering and control cables. 

Prerequisites .—Men with previous experience in working sheet 
metal or copper, tinsmiths, or plumbers and tinsmiths’ helpers, also 
roofers and corrugated-iron workers, would be available for this course. 
Course: 

Tools and appliances used. 

Fluxes— • 

Principles. 

Kinds. 

Uses. 

Soldering— 

Principles of process. 

Kinds of solder. 

Fluxes for different types of work. 

Tinning the copper. 

Care ot copper. 

Preparing the surfaces and tinning them. 

Sweating jobs. 

Tinning wires and ends of cables. 

Kadiator repairs. 

Gas tank and piping repair. 

Precautions against explosion. 

Swage unions. 

Bending piping and fittings. 

Sheet-metal work— 

Bending and cutting sheet metal. 

Shaping and fitting sheet metal parts. 

Making sheet metal parts from sketches and blue prints. 
Making replacement parts from perfect and broken fittings. 
Making dimensioned field sketches for bench jobs in re¬ 
placement. 

Brazing— 

Principle. 

Fluxes. 

Brazing versus soldering. 

Preparing work for brazing. 

Cleaning surfaces. 

Use of flux. 

Use of different brazing alloys. 

Brazing. 

Finishing jobs. 

Machine work— 

Drill press work. 

Holes in angles. 

Countersinking. 

Keboring. 

Hand punch work— 

When used. 

Single sheets. 

Multiple sheets. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


23 


Course -Continued. 

Hand shear work— 

When used. 

Single sheets. 

Multiple sheets. 

Fitting with hand shear. 

Filing, riveting, wiring, and turning edges. 

Working small cold-rolled steel, bar, plate, rod. 

Control-cable working (all ^-inch or -j^-inch galvanized flexi¬ 
ble cable, also nonflexible cable)— 

Fastening. 

Splicing in eves. 

Splicing in thimbles. 

Soldering joints, etc. 

Splicing by eyes. 

Making cables to length— 

Eye in one end. 

Eyes in both ends. 

Hard, or piano, wire is always painted or enameled white, to 
show presence of rust spots. Cable often crystalizes and breaks 
occur in the strands. Tliis is indicated by wiping with an oily rag; 
the rag catches on broken ends and indicates crystallization, with 
concurrent weakness. 

ENGINE REPAIR MEN. 

The men in this occupation are for service in the maintenance and 
repair of airplane and automobile engines. 

Prerequisite .—The men for this class should be recruited from 
automobile service stations, garages, machine shops, and similar 
lines. Extreme care should be used in selecting the personnel of the 
class because the work requires an unusually high degree of skill 
and no man incapable of attaining the required proficiency should 
be retained in the class. 

Course : 

General principles of four-stroke-cycle engines, single and mul¬ 
ticylinder. 

Engines- 

Types— 

T head. 

L head. 

Valve in head. 

M ul ticylinder— 

Four. % 

Six. 

Eight. 

Twelve. 

Construction and parts— 

Cylinders. 

Valves. 

Pistons. 

Crank shaft. 


24 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


Course —Continued. 

Engines —Continued. 

Construction and parts—Continued. 

Ignition system— 

Magneto. 

Battery. 

Dual. 

Carburetion system. 

Cooling system. 

Starting and lighting system. 

Taking down motor— 

General plan— 

System of keeping track of parts for reassembly. 
Gear relation and identification— 

Valve gearing. 

Ignition gearing. 

Dissembling starting and lighting system. 
Dissembling ignition system. 

Dissembling cooling system. 

Dissembling valve mechanism. 

Removal of carbon. 

Regrinding valves, general. 

Bearing, general. 

Bearings— 

Kinds. 

Use of shims. 

Pouring babbitt. 

Scraping and fitting. 

Engine repair: 

Engine- 
Valves— 

Reseating. 

Grinding. 

Clearance of stems. 

Replacement of springs. 

Timing. 

Ignition— 

Wiring diagram. 

Cleaning plugs. 

Cleaning, oiling, and replacement of worn parts 
in magneto. 

Cleaning and adjustment of points of distributor 
or coil. 

Cleaning and testing storage battery— 
Electrolyte. 

Buckled plates. 

Leaking cell. 

Starting and lighting system— 

Wiring diagram. 

Generator. 

Wiring. 

Commutator. 

Brushes. 

Bearings. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


25 


Course —Continued. 

Engine repair—Continued. 

Engine—Continued. 

Starting and lighting systems—Continued. 


Starting motor— 

Wiring. 

Commutator. 

Brushes. 

Gears. 

Gear-shifting mechanism. 

Fuse block. 

Ammeter. 

Lights— 

Series and parallel connections. 
Carburetor— 

Parts. 

Cleaning. 

Replacing. 

Adjusting— 


Shop. 

Road. 


Gravity, pressure, and vacuum feed. 


Cooling system - 
Radiator. 
Cleaning. 
Repair. 
Pump- 


'a eking glands. 


Oiling system 
Types— 

Splash. 

Force feed. 

Splash and force feed. 
Oilp 



Air pocketing. 
Cleaning and renewing oil. 
Reassembly of motor— 
General. 

Fitting gaskets. 

Wiring up. 

Timi valves. 



Clearance. 

Timing electrically. 

Normal position for spark. 

Reconnecting cooling system. 

Reconnecting gasoline svstem. 

Draining and cleaning. 

Reconnecting spark and throttle mechanism. 
Testing— 

Shop, adjusting. 

Road, adjusting. 


26 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


IGNITION REPAIR MEN. 

The duties of this line of service involve the care, repair, and opera¬ 
tion of ignition circuits and their appliances, where either the high- 
tension magneto or the battery is used as a source of power. Instruc¬ 
tion is also to be given in the Ford system of ignition, as that type is 
in common use in all branches of the service. 

Prerequisite .—Men for this course should have been employed in 
electrical work on cars in service stations, or in factories engaged in 
manufacturing ignition equipment, or in electrical trades dealing 
with electrical machinery. 

Course: 

Electricity - 

General principles of current flow in wires. 

High and low tension currents. 

Ignition— 

General principles in gas-engine practice. 

Low tension, general. 

High tension, general. 

Dual. 

Magnetos— 

High tension. 

Construction. 

Windings. 

Use of each part. 

Effect of grounding. 

Method of grounding. 

Safety spark gap, use. 

Distributor plate— 

Construction. 

Use. 

Chain, or gear, drive. 

Testing for grounds in coil. 

Testing for weak magneto. 

Remagnetizing magnets. 

Replacing bearings, sprockets, and gears. 

Oiling. 

Wiring diagram- 
internal. 

External. 

Battery system, as Delco— 

Primary batteries— 

Construction. 

Operation. 

Uses. 

Storage batteries— 

Construction. 

Operation. 

Charging. 

Discharging. 

Sulfation. 

Buckling. 

Testing. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


27 


V) ur se —Continue d. 

Battery system, as Delco—Continued. 

Coil- 

Core. 

Insulation of core. 

Primary winding, insulation. 

Secondary winding, insulation. 

Insulation between primary and secondary coils. 
External insulation. 

Connection (internal wiring diagram). 

Delco primary ignition circuit. 

Advantages of battery ignition. 

1 listributor— 

Breaker mechanism. 

Cam 8 and 12 cylinder engines. 

Cam speed versus engine speed. 

Driving shaft and bearings. 

Breaker arms, contact points, springs. 

Use of breaker arms. 

Safety feature by means of third breaker arm and 
resistance coil. 

Condenser, construction, care, use. 

Adjustment of breaker arms, contact points, and 
springs (lubrication). 

Timing with relation to piston, cam shaft, and valves. 
Synchronizing breaker mechanism for right and left 
distributors. 

Distribution of high tension current 
High tension winding in coils. 

Contact with rotor. 

Distributing head. 

Rotor brush. 

Wires to plugs. 

Firing order 4, 6, S, 12 cylinder engines. 

Plugs, care and adjustment. 

Ford ignition— 

General. 

Wiring diagram. 

Magneto— 

Construction. 

Wiring. 

Weaknesses. 

Repair. 

Coil- 

Construction. 

Replacement. 

Connections. 

Vibrators— 

Adjustment. 

Cleaning 

Replacement. 


28 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


INSTRUMENT REPAIR MEN. 

Men in this line of service are called upon to replace, adjust, repair, 
clean, and reconstruct the scientific measuring devices upon the 
airplane, such as barometers, ammeters, compasses, and clocks. 

Prerequisites .—Men who have been watch repairers, jewelers, gauge 
makers, or assemblers, electrical instrument repair men, or scientific 
instrument makers, or repairers, should have the qualifications for 
admission to this course. 

Course. 

Aneroid barometer— 

General. 

Pressure chamber. 

Indicating mechanism. 

Spring tension. 

Scale. 

Adjustment by standard # barometer. 

Emplacement. 

Case. 

Scale. 

Pointer. 

Pawl and rachet. 

Spring. 

Pressure chamber. 

Tachometer— 

Construction. 

Calibration if necessary. 

Lubrication. 

Method of connecting in place. 

Flexible shaft. 

Gears. 

Dials and pointer. 

Replacement. 

Flexible shaft. 

Gears on motor.. 

Gears in instrument . 

Dial or pointer. 

Indicating mechanism. 

Oil pressure gauges— 

General— 

Coil. 

Lever mechanism. 

Springs. 

Replacement— 

Coil. 

Dial. 

Indicating mechanism. 

Volt and ammeters— 

General construction— 

Magnets. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


29 


Course —Continued. 

Volt and ammeters - Continued. 

General construction—Continued. 
Spring. 

Supporting pivots. 

Indicating mechanism. 

Dial and case. 

Testing for burned-out coils. 

Locating grounds. 

Calibrating, or correcting, instrument. 
Replacing- 
Magnets. 

Coil. 

Spring. 

Indicating mechanism. 
Compasses— 


General construction— 

Air. 

Spirit. 

Expansion chamber. 
Relative accuracy for airplane work. 
Effect of slow response of needle. 
Variation and deviation. 

Correcting for— 

Replacing cover glass. 

Replacing spirit. 


Clock repair .—The student should become familiar with the 
general construction of clocks, their major troubles, lubrication, and 
general repair. 


MOTOR CAR AND TRUCK CHAUFFEURS 


The men in this branch of work are called upon to drive motor 
vehicles of various types and are expected to be able to make ordinar} r 
road repairs, as well as keep their machines tuned up at all times. 

Prerequisites .—The best training for this service is to have driven 
a motor car of some type. However, a man mechanically inclined, 
with an alert mind, can be developed by proper instruction to be a 
very capable operator. 

For properly carrying on this work the school should have avail¬ 
able for instructional work standard chassis having engines of four 
and six cylinders, and it is desirable to have those containing eight 
and twelve cylinders, if possible. 

There should be the various parts of a car in a partially or wholly 
dissembled state, as engine, crank shaft, cylinders, pistons, connect¬ 
ing rods, cam shaft, 2 to 1 gears, carburetor, pumps (oil and water), 
ignition systems (coil and magneto), clutches, universal joints, 
transmission, differential, axles (rear and front), steering gear, light¬ 
ing and starting systems, tires, tubes, etc. 


30 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


One or more cars or trucks should be available for driving. In 
case there is difficulty about this, it may be possible to arrange with 
some business concern for the use of a truck and driver for evening 
work. 

Prerequisites .—This course should be open only to men familiar, 
in general, with the operation of motor vehicles, or with considerable 
experience with machines and mechanical work. 

Course .—The course should cover the following subjects, and there 
should be as much actual laboratory instruction coordinated with 
the lectures as it is practicable to give: 

1. Front axles and steering gears, including the adjustment and 
lubrication of front wheels, tie-rods, steering arms, tires and rims. 
The lining up of front wheels and care of various types of steering 
gears should also be given special consideration. 

2. Rear axles, considering adjustments of wheels, radius rods, 
chains, differentials, brakes, and thrust rods. The repair and relining 
of brakes should also be taught. 

3. Transmissions and clutches, taking up dissembling, replacement, 
and adjusting of transmission gears, bearings, universal joints, stuf¬ 
fing boxes, care of cone and disk clutches, relining clutcnes, adjust¬ 
ment and care of clutch mechanism. 

4. Engines, including valve grinding, valve adjusting, bearing ad¬ 
justing, care of lubricating systems. Locating trouble, such as missing 
cylinders, knocks, etc. Fan adjustments, care of cooling system, and 
operation and testing of engines in general. 

5. Lubrication, including engine, clutch, universal joints, trans¬ 
mission, rear and front wheels, steering gear, and all other pai ls 
requiring lubricating. 

6. Ignition, care and field repair of low and high tension magnetos, 
battery systems, wiring, cleaning plugs, distributors, vibrators, etc., 
and locating and correcting troubles due to defective ignition, such 
as may occur on the road. 

7. Carburetion, including fuel lines, gravity, pressure and vacuum 
systems, care of fuel tanks, adjustments to various standard types 
of carburetors. Effect of different mixtures on behavior of engine. 

8. Driving, including manipulation of the clutch, gear shifting, use 
of brakes and of engines as a brake. Backing, starting, and stopping 
properly. Driving in sand, mud, wet clay. Use of chains, maneu¬ 
vering of car in close quarters. 

It should be borne in mind that the aim is to develop a capable, 
efficient driver who can take proper care of his car or truck. Those 
who have not attributes giving hope of attaining the proper proficiency 
should be dropped from the class at once. 

No certificate should be awarded except for complete proficiency 
in all the prescribed lines. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


31 


WELDING AC TOG E N OC S. 

Men in this class of service are called upon to weld various metal 
parts of airplanes and their mechanisms, to braze joints, and to do 
various work in this line upon any of the appliances used by the 
Aviation Service. 

Prerequisites .—The classes should be limited to men with previous 
experience as welders; to men with previous experience in the metal 
trades interested in this subject; or to promising novices genuinely 
interested in the work who may be expected to develop into capable 
workers. 

Course: 

General principles of the work from chemical and metallurgical 
standpoints. 

Acetylene 

Generation 

Types of generators'in common use. 

Operation and care of each. 

Precautions to be observed. 

Methods of generation. 

Storage' and shipment. 

Oxyacetylene erj uipment— 

Acetylene. 

Oxygen. 

Burner. 

Glasses. 

Pressure gauges and reducing valves. 

Welding- 

Care and regulation of the flame. 

Precautions against explosion. 

Use of fluxes. 

Use of brazing material, etc. 

Preparation of joints. 

Preheating. 

Effect of expansion and contraction precautions. 

Building up materials. 

Slow cooling. 

Precautions against burning surrounding material. 

Dressing and finishing the job. 

(Each student should have experience in welding various 

metals, such as iron, steel, aluminum, brass, etc.) 

METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. 

The instruction should be given on the individual rather than the 
group basis. This means that at the very outset effort should be 
made to learn by conference and direct test in what portion of the 
course, if any, the student already shows proficiency. He should 
be given credit for this and the remainder of his work should be 
assigned to him in definite order. 


32 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


To do this, it will be necessary to break up the entire course of 
training into a series of short unit courses, each dealing with some 
process or phase. These short courses should be numbered in the 
consecutive order in which they should be taken. Not only should 
a student be given credit for every course in which he is able to show 
proficiency at the start but the instructor should be ready at any 
time to examine him on the work of any short course in which he is 
engaged. When he shows proficiency therein he should be given 
credit for it and promptly assigned to the succeeding short course. 

This will require a system of records in the hands of the pupil and 
displayed on the shop or schoolroom wall, so that at a glance both 
the instructor and the student may be able at all times to visualize 
the latter’s status in the course. In this way it will be easily pos¬ 
sible for the instructor not only to make the best assignment of new 
short unit courses to men upon the satisfactory completion of old 
ones but to utilize to the best* advantage his equipment for the 
different short unit courses. 

When the student applies for the course, he should be given au 
opportunity to demonstrate his mastery of any one or more of the 
requirements in any one of these short unit courses, leaving for the 
classroom instruction only those in which he i3 not proficient. 

Inasmuch as the subjects of these short unit courses have no 
direct interrelation, so that none of them may be regarded as pre¬ 
requisite to any other, a standard equipment necessary to give in¬ 
struction to three pupils in each of these courses could be so used as 
to give instruction to 24 pupils at one time, the students being dis¬ 
tributed among the courses so as to keep all the equipment busy at 
once. 

The course, as outlined, was given last May to a group of men, all of 
whom had had some experience in a garage or in repair work on their 
own cars. These men were volunteering as truck drivers for the 
Quartermaster Corps, and in 36 hours of evening-school instruction 
as above outlined they were, in the opinion of Regular Army officials, 
better prepared for motor-truck service than any similar group that 
had been furnished to the Army up to that time. It is suggested 
that should this course be lengthened so as to increase the number 
beyond 36, the number of hours for each short unit course within the 
full course should be increased in the same proportion. 

Appendixes A and B give descriptions of the organization of the 
evening class for motor-truck drivers as above outlined, together 
with a set of examination questions which were used in testing and 
classifying the students at the time of entrance to the course. This 
information is given purely as a suggestion of the method whereby, 
as experience has shown, these short unit courses in instruction may 
be most successfully given. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


33 


EQUIPMENT. 

While it would be undoubtedly a great help in securing the training 
called for in this and other circulars by the Federal board, it does not 
seem feasible, at the present time, to expect from the National Gov¬ 
ernment any assistance in the way of equipment for doing the work. 
The Government is doubtless having difficulty in securing all the 
equipment it needs for the cantonments and the active service. 
Consequently, schools will have to rely on the equipment which they 
now possess, together with such additional equipment as school 
officials may see their way clear to get in order properly to discharge 
this important task of training conscripted men. 

It goes without saying that the instruction given should be prac¬ 
tical and direct in character. What is needed is not book instruction, 
or lectures, or classroom instruction, but actual practice in the work 
itself, accompanied by explanation, diagram, illustration, supple¬ 
mentary instruction, and reading. 

Unless schools are in a position to provide the equipment necessary 
to enable the conscripted men actually to do the things they have 
been taught, as far as the course provides, they should not undertake 
to train for any of the occupations outlined above. It is important, 
above everything else, that the Government should at this juncture 
be able to rely upon proper training, where su<ffi training is under¬ 
taken, rather than on misguided and inefficient efforts, however well 
intentioned. 

It would be far better for the State board for vocational education 
of any State to secure the establishment of a small number of training 
classes doing the work well than to have local schools and classes 
undertake to do that for which they are not equipped, from the 
standpoint of either facilities or instructors. 


APPENDIX A—PART II. 

The following is a description of the organization and methods pursued by a promi¬ 
nent institution giving instruction in motor-truck work. It is given here primarily 
to illustrate a successful scheme for giving any course in a series of progressive units 
which will enable earnest men to pass off the requirements of each unit as soon as they 
have gained the required proficiency and which will enable a school to use its equip¬ 
ment to the greatest advantage. 

Description of Organization of Motor-Truck Evening Class. 

Applicants washing to enlist in the Quartermaster Reserve Corps were first ques¬ 
tioned as to their experience concerning automobiles and motor trucks. If a man 
had had some experience and was able to drive and handle various makes of motor 
cars and seemed to have some knowledge of the working parts of a motor vehicle, he 
v*as accepted and was referred to the examining physician. 

After passing the physical test and being sworn into the service, the applicant was 
referred to the automobile department of the school. He was then given a list of 25 



34 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


questions concerning the operation and care of motor trucks. He was asked to answer 
these questions as fully as possible. From the examination papers a man was graded 
on the grading chart according to his knowledge or according to the way he answered 
the questions handed him. 

From this step the applicant was assigned to certain evenings in the week upon 
which instruction was given. 

The shopwork consisted of the actual adjusting, repairing, lubricating, and study 
of the various parts of motor trucks. This work was under the direction of practical 
men who were capable of directing work of this kind on a practical basis. After a 
student completed an operation to the satisfaction of the instructors, he was imme¬ 
diately marked on the grading chart and was assigned to a new operation, until all 
operations were fully completed or he had proven to the satisfaction of the instructor 
that he did not need to take the actual shopwork as carried on at that time. It w as 
found advisable in some cases to put a man out with the driving squad and then pull 
him back into the shop in order to give him more of an apperceptive basis. 

The driving was conducted on the large lot adjoining the school. Five trucks were 
used to carry on this work. Instructors were employed from the various automobile 
concerns. These men were picked men and were thoroughly competent to give this 
work. The student was first directed in the starting of the engine, as to the spark 
and throttle positions and the control levers. He was then given practice on the 
shifting of gears and the use of the clutch 

Straightaway driving was given first and then zigzag driving was practiced. Stakes 
were driven into the ground to represent a curved course, and then students were 
compelled to drive through a zigzag course of these stakes without knocking them 
down. These stakes were brought closer and closer-together until the. truck had 
very little clearance on each side, after which students were trained to drive through 
these rows of stakes at various rates of speed, the speed increasing as their ability 
increased. 

After going forward through these stakes a great many times students were then 
directed to back through this line of stakes. When they became proficient in han¬ 
ding the truck in both forward and backward driving through this line of stakes, 
they w ere given practice in stopping without knocking over a stake in both forward 
and backw ard directions. 

Small spaces were staked off, and a student was directed to drive his truck into 
this space, turn it around and place the front end in a certain position. This opera¬ 
tion w as to give a student practice in placing his truck in the desired position with 
the least number of turns of the steering wheel or the least number of switches neces¬ 
sary to turn the truck around and place it. 

After completing the work as outlined above a student was sent away from the 
truck and the instructor made various adjustments on the magneto, carburetor, 
ignition, and other parts, causing the engine to miss and indicate troubles of various 
sorts. The student was then directed to find the trouble as quickly as possible. If 
he failed to find the trouble in a reasonable length of time, the instructor questioned 
him and assisted him in reasoning out what would cause troubles as indicated by 
his dissembling or adjusting the parts to indicate these vaiious troubles. 

After various tests of this kind the student was directed to drive in the dark. In 
fact, very few lights were used, as the work was given after dark. Many of these 
adjustments w^ere made in the dark, and although the school was located betw r een 
arc lights the light was none too good where the driving was given. 

Each and every student w as compelled to prove to the satisfaction of his instructors 
that he was capable of handling at least five different trucks. Some of the trucks 
used were the Packard, G. M. 0., Wilcox, Bessemer, and White, along with various 
makes of motor cars. 

Two men were placed on each truck with an instructor. Students were often 
shifted as many as three times in one evening from one truck to another, or just as 
soon as they had become proficient in shifting gears and handling of each truck. 

After each student completed the course in full he was checked and w r as advised 
that it would not be necessary for him to continue the w ork. In this way it left 
openings for new students who wanted to come in. 

This short course was found to be a success in every way. The system used was 
very efficient, and it w r as not necessary to change it materially. 



TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


35 


APPENDIX B—PART II. 

Examination Questions for Classifying Truck Drivers and Mechanics Prior 
to the Training to be Given in Evening Schools. 

Please note the following carefully: 

1. I irst write your name and address on your examination papers. 

2. Number your answers to questions in the center of the sheet. 

3. If you fail to answer any question, place the number of the question in the cente 
of the sheet anyway. 

4. Do not fold your papers. Hand them to the instructor and let him fold them. 

5. Ask questions of the instructor if you do not understand the questions. 

6. Please answer all questions that you can. 

I. 

Name all the parts of the front axle and steering gear that need lubrication. 

II. 

A. State fully how you would proceed to adjust front wheels. 

15. How often do front wheels need cleaning and new grease? 

III. 

A. Suppose you had a load on a truck and you broke a front spring. What would 
you do to get the truck to a repair department? 

15. Why do springs need lubrication? 

IV. 

A. What would you do if you broke a front wheel? 

15. What would you do if you broke a steering knuckle? 

C. What would you do if you broke your steering mechanism? 

V. 

A. Name all the parts of a worm drive rear axle. 

15. What are the parts of a rear axle that rnay give trouble under severe usage? 

VI. 

A. TTow would you proceed to adjust brakes? 

B. Suppose your brakes refused to hold vour truck on a very steep grade. What 
would you do to save the truck and to avoid an accident? 

VII. 

How could you tell what part of your driving mechanism was broken if your truck 
refused to go when your clutch was engaged and the gear shifting lever was in some 
speed position? 

VIII. 

A. What is a universal joint? 

15. Why are they used? 

C. How often do they need oil? 

IX. 

A. Name all the parts of a three-speed transmission. 

B. What are the indications of a stripped transmission gear? 

C. IIow often should a transmission be inspected for the proper amount of oil? 

X. 

A. What are some of the things that <?ause a cone clutch to slip? 

15. What are some of the things that cause a cone clutch to grab? 

C. What is the remedy for a grabbing cone clutch? 



36 


TBAINING FOB CONSCEIPTED MEN. 


XI. 

A. What are some of the things that cause a multiple disk clutch to slip, and what 
is the remedy? ‘(Either running in oil or dry.) 

B. What are some of the things that cause a multiple disk clutch to grab, and what 
is the remedy? (Either running in oil or dry.) 

XII. 

A. What are some of the things that cause an engine to pound? 

B. What are the indications of a loose connecting rod? 

C. What are the indications of a loose main bearing? 

XIII. 

A. What are the indications of a loose piston? Of poor rings? 

B. What are the indications of scored cylinders? 

C. What causes an engine to overheat? 

XIV. 

A. What are the indications of a carbon deposit in the cylinder, and what effect 
does it have on the running of the engine? 

B. How would you proceed to remove carbon from the cylinders? 

XV. 

A. How would you proceed to test the cylinders for compression? 

B. What are the indications of a leaky exhaust valve? 

C. What are the indications of a leaky inlet valve? 

XVI. 

A. State fully how you would proceed to grind valves. 

B. What are some of the things that one must be careful of in grinding valves? 

XVII. 

State fully how you would proceed to adjust the valves after grinding them. 

XVIII. 

A. Name the parts of a simple carbureter, and state fully how you would proceed to 
adjust any carbureter. 

B. What are the indications of a rich mixture? 

C. What are the indications of a lean mixture? 

D. What would you do if your carbureter got on fire? 

XIX. 

A. Name three lubricating systems. 

B. State fully how you would care for a pressure-feed lubricating system. 

C. What are the indications of a plugged oil line? 


XX. 


Name all the parts of the engine that need lubrication. 


XXI. 


A. How would you locate a cylinder that is not firing? 

B. How would you locate whether it is in the ignition or elsewhere? 

C. How would you proceed to clean a spark plug? 

D. How would you find the firing order of any engine? 

XXII. # 

A. What is a high-tension magneto? Name the parts. 

B. What is a low-tension magneto? Name the parts. 





TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


37 


XXIII. 

A. How would you proceed to set a magneto in time on an engine? 

B. How would you proceed to set a battery system in time on an engine? 

O. What are the indications of an early spark? 

D. What are the indications of a late spark? 

XXIV. 

A. What care does a storage battery require? 

B. What care does a generator require? 

C. What care does a magneto require? 

D. What care does a carbureter require? 

E. What care does a cooling system require? 

XXV. 

Name all the parts of a truck that need lubrication, and state how often each one 
should be lubricated. 


APPENDIX C—PART II. 

Suggested List of Test Questions, Compiled by Army Offi¬ 
cers, for Determining the Proficiency of Students upon 
Completing the Courses Outlined. 


EXAMINATION FOR CABINETMAKERS—SERIES 1. 

Questions used to determine candidates’ qualifications and rating 
as cabinetmakers. Variations of basic questions depend upon in¬ 
dividual candidate. 

1. How many years have you been a cabinetmaker? 

2. Name the largest firm by whom you have been employed. When and where 
were you last employed? \Vhat is the highest salary you have ever been paid? 
Can you furnish recommendations? 

3. Has your responsibility been as an apprentice, a journeyman, a foreman, or a 
shop manager? "What references can you furnish? 

4. What is the nature of the work on which you have been employed? 

A. Shop work or outside work. 

5. What is the best piece of work on which you have ever worked? Have you 
worked on laminated wood, veneer work, and how much bench work have you done? 
What is a dovetail joint? 

A. Demonstration. 

6. Can you operate woodworking machines? 

A. Such as planers, shapers, band saws, lathes, etc. 

7. What kinds of wood have you worked? 

A. Hard woods: 

Maple. 

Birch. 

Oak. 

Mahogany. 

Walnut. 

Soft woods: 

White pine. 

Yellow pine. 

Spruce. 

Fir. 

Cedar. 

8. Can you do wood carving? What, is your ability? 

9. Can you work from drawings? If so, what is your ability? 

10. Are you also a draftsman? If so, what is your ability? 



38 


TRAINING NOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


EXAMINATION FOR CABINETMAKERS—SERIES II. 

1. What is a bench hook? 

A. It is a movable device for holding small pieces to be worked on. It fits on 
the edge of the workbench. 

2. What is a mortise and tenon joint; a lap joint? 

3. How is quartered oak sawed to get the marking desired? 

A. The log is quartered so that each quarter can be sawed on a line more parallel 
to the pith rays which run diagonally from the center. 

4. What is the difference between a block plane and a smooth plane? 

A. A block plane is very short, used mostly for planing and grain wood; the blade 
is set at a smaller angle with the wood than a smooth plane. A smooth plane is long, 
having a much greater bearing surface on the wood; is the last hand means for smooth¬ 
ing up a board or an edge to be glued. 

5. How is wood glue prepared? 

A. The best wood glue is hot when applied. Glue chips are soaked in warm water 
until dissolved, then let stand overnight, then it is heated by setting the pot in hot 
water until it becomes a liquid. 

6. When is a faceplate used in wood turning? 

A. A faceplate is used when the piece to be worked on is too short to place between 
centers; also when it is wished to work or turn one end. 

7. How would you put a. good finish on black walnut without staining? 

A. Use a dark filler, two coats of shellac, smooth off with fine sandpaper between 
each coat, apply three coats of good varnish at intervals of 48 hours, rub each coat 
smooth with pumice stone and linseed oil, finish with rottenstone and linseed oil. 

8. What is a backsaw; coping saw? 

A. A backsaw is a short bench saw with a stiffener on the back; it is about halfway 
between a rip and crosscut saw, so it can be used for either, usually used for mortise 
and tenon joints, as the distance which the saw will pass into a piece of wood is limited 
by the stiffener. A coping saw is used for design sawing, and is usually a heavy frame 
and very fine saw; it is used for the same purpose as a jig saw. 

9. What is the shortest piece of wood that can be safely run over the jointer? 

A. A piece of wood less than 8 inches long should never be run over a jointer. It 
is dangerous. 

10. What is the difference between a wood drill and a bit? 

A. A wood drill has no lead screw; pressure must be applied on the brace to make 
it feed; they are generally single twist, and sizes do not usually run above one-half 
inch. 

EXAMINATION FOR CHAUFFEURS—SERIES I. 

1. What cars have you driven more than 1,000 miles? Name the self-starter, gaso¬ 
line feed, and carburetor on each. 

2. When two machines meet at. a crossroads, which machine has the right of way? 

A. The machine that is on the right. 

3. What injury to a car might be caused by a grabbing clutch? 

A. A grabbing clutch might cause the stripping of gears, and a severe straining- 
throughout the transmission to the wheels. 

4. If you should stop in the middle of a hill going up, how would you proceed to start 
again? 

A. Use the emergency brake to hold the car so the foot can remain on the acceier- 
at or, then release the brake with the hand as the clutch is engaged. 

5. How could you tell if an intake valve or an intake valve spring should break? 

A. By spitting or back-firing through the carburetor. 

6. What is the principle of the thermosiphon cooling system? 

A. The water is circulated by the difference in temperature of the water, the warm 
water rising to the top and displacing the cooler water in the top of the radiator. 

7. What is a choke .on a carburetor, and what effect does it have when used? 

A. A choke is a device for closing the air passage of a carburetor, causing a richer 
mixture to be drawn into the cylinders. 

8. What might be the cause of a flooding carburetor? 

A. An uneven seat for the float valve, a gasoline-soaked float, dirt under the float 
valve, or a float stock within the bowl. 

9. What might be the cause of a knock in a motor? 

A. Loose bearings, carbon, too much advance of ignition, and by incorrect mixture. 

10. Why is it necessary to have an even adjustment of brakes on both rear wheels?' 

A. So that when the brakes are applied both wheels will be affected equally. The 

car will not swing around with this adjustment correct, and this will save one tire from 
being worn out before the other one. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


39 


EXAMINATION FOR CHAUFFEURS—SERIES II. 

1. If rear wheels were skidding to the right, which way would you turn front wheels? 

A. To the right. 

2. What would you do if brakes refused to work? 

A. Shut off engine, put in the lowest speed, and let clutch in. 

3. What parts are to be looked after in regard to safety of public? 

A. Steering apparatus, brakes, clutch. 

4. What are the road rules? 

A. Keep to the right of oncoming vehicles, pass vehicles going in the same direction 
on left. 

5. What is the most essential thing in keeping a motor in running condition? 

A. To see that it is properly oiled. 

6. What causes knocking? 

A. Overload, loose bearings, carbon. 

7. What kind of clutches are there and what is their care? 

A. Cone, leather faced; neat’s-foot oil. Disk, in oil, kept clean of dirt and grit. 
Band clutch lined with Raybestos, etc.; neat’s-foot oil is sometimes used. 

8. What causes a back tire or kick? 

A. Exhaust valve sticking, spark advanced, or preignition if motor is very warm. 

9. What cooling systems are there and what kinds? 

A. Air cooled and water cooled by gravity or force. 

10. How would you go about getting a machine ready for work and starting it? 

A. See that, there was gas, oil, and water; grease parts if necessary. See that gears 
were neutral, retard spark, advance gas enough to start, turn on switch, and crank by 
pulling up. Never rock motor. 

EXAMINATION FOR CHAUFFEURS—SERIES III. 

1. What would you do if your motor was knocking while going up a hill? 

A. You would retard your spark and. if necessary, shift to a lower gear. 

2. How do you save brakes from excessive use while going down steep hills? 

A. Slacken the speed of your car at the top of the hill, letting your motor do the 
braking; by throttling it down and shifting into a lower speed, according to the steep¬ 
ness of the hill. 

3. While driving a car, what is a safe minimum distance to keep while driving in 
back of another car. especially on a hill? 

A. It would be a safe distance to keep about 40 feet in back of another car while 
driving on the level, and on a hill you should drop back to about 75 feet from the car 
in front. 

4. What would you do while coming down a steep hill and your brakes refused te 
work. 

A. You would throttle your motor down immediately and then try to shift back into 
a low gear, then shut off your motor, letting your motor do the braking, keeping well 
to the middle of the road if possible. 

5. What precautions should be taken in shifting gears when driving a motor vehicle? 

A. First thing you must have your clutch entirely disengaged, then waiting one or 

two seconds in order that the two gears to be meshed shall be revolving at nearly the 
same speed, then the clutch gradually reengaged. 

6. While driving a car and the water in the radiator starts to boil, what might be 
the cause? 

A. Lack of oil, lack of water, fan belt broken and fan stopped, broken water pump, 
and too rich a mixture of gasoline. 

7. If you should stall your motor while going up a steep hill, how would you start 
your car away after your motor was started? 

A. You would put it in first speed before leaving off your emergency brake, speeding 
your motor up with the accelerator, leaving out your clutch gradually, at the same time 
letting off your emergency brake, so as not to leave your car jerk or drift backward. 

8. Name some of the precautions that should be taken in keeping a motor vehicle 
in first-class shape, ready for service at any time. 

A. You would keep your radiator flushed out, have your oij at the proper level, gas 
tank full of gasoline, water in your radiator, all grease cups filled, your brakes adjusted 
properly, and see if your ignition is in first-class shape. 

9. In what way wall car tracks injure rubber tires. 

A. Car tracks will cut your tires on the side, causing blow-outs, and may pull a tire 
off the rim while turning out of a car track. 

10 What is the proper care of springs? 

A. You should nave your spring clips tight and your shackles well greased, also put 
oil or grease between the leaves. 


40 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


EXAMINATION FOR CHAUFFEURS—SERIES IV. 

1. Name three of the most important parts of an automobile. 

(a) Motor, (6) transmission, (c) differential. 

2. Name two important power plants on motor. 

(a) Carburetor, (6) magneto. 

3. Name three kinds of oiling systems. 

(a) Force feed, (6) full force feed, (c) splash system. 

4. As what does a carburetor act on any motor? 

(a) It acts as a food supplier, so that the motor may be run fast or slow, according to 
amount of gasoline you feed through it. 

5. What is a magneto used for on a gasoline-engine automobile? 

(a) A magneto is used on an automobile to produce a spark to fire the compressed 
gasoline vapor in the cylinders at the proper time. 

6. What is the difference between a full-floating and semifloating rear axle? 

(a) On a full-floating axle the weight of the rear part of the car rests on the brake 
housing. 

(b) On a semifloating axle the weight is distributed about equally on both the 
brake housing and the axle itself. 

7. What would cause your car to knock on a hill climb? 

(a) Advanced spark. 

(b ) Also might be out of lubricating oil. 

(c) Connecting-rod bearings loose. 

8. Name three kinds of transmissions. 

(a) Planetary type, which is the band transmission. 

(b) Selective transmission, which is the gears, also the progressive transmission, 
which is also a sliding gear transmission. 

9. How would you brake your car for a quick stop if your brakes failed you? 

(a) Cut your car from one side of the road to another. 

( b ) Also use the compression on the motor. 

(c) If necessary, throw your car in reverse. 

10. What is a clutch used for on any automobile? Also name two kinds. 

(a) A clutch is a movable friction connecting the crank shaft to the transmission 
shaft. It is so arranged that transmission shaft may remain stationary while the 
motor is still running until thrown in, then the transmission shaft will turn with the 
crank shaft. 

EXAMINATION FOR CHAUFFEURS—SERIES V. 

1. Before starting out on a long trip, what preparations do you make? 

A. See that the brakes are in good order and working properly. Take up all play 
or lost motion in the wheel bearings. Drain and refill the transmissions and differ¬ 
ential. Fill all grease cups. Tighten all loose bolts and nuts. Examine the light¬ 
ing system. Fill the storage battery with distilled water. Fill radiator, gas tank, 
and oil reservoir. Test all tires and carry as many extras as possible. Always carry 
a good set of skid chains, tool kit, and emergency repair stock. Include 100 feet 
of three-fourths inch rope and a good road map. 

2. What effect would one tight brake band have if the brakes were applied on a 
wet asphalt pavement? 

A. It would cause a skid in the direction of the side which had the tightest brake 
band. 

3. If you were standing on a steep hill, headed up, with another car close behind 
you, how would you get under way again? 

A. Hold the car with both the foot and hand brake and feed the motor with the hand 
throttle. Leave in the clutch until you feel the motor taking the load. Then release 
the foot brake and feed the motor with the accelerator and gradually release the hand 
brake as the motor picks up the load. Always engage the clutch gently. After 
gaining speed make a quick shift to second, and, if conditions are possible, shift 
into high. 

4. What causes a motor to knock on a hill or heavy pull? How do you relieve it? 

A. Preignition, due to a carbonized or hot motor, running with the ignition too far 

advanced or working the motor to its limit. First try and relieve the knock by 
retarding the ignition. If the knock still remains, shift to second or first as the case 
may require. 

5. If you saw a stretch of mud ahead that looked deep, how would you hit it? 

A. If the stretch is not very long, I would “rush” it. If it looked hard to get 
through, I would stop before reaching the mud and put on the skid chains and pro¬ 
ceed in low or second, as the case required, the object being to keep under motion. 
If once stopped, it might be impossible to get under way again. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


41 


6. If you saw a stretch of sand ahead on one side and it was impossible to avoid it, 
how would you proceed to take the sand? 

A. Slacken the speed of the car and take up the slack in the steering gear toward 
the side opposite from the sand, as running into loose sand with one wheel always 
pulls the front wheels in that direction. 

7. If the car had a tendency to swerve or weave on the road, where would you 
look for trouble? 

A. The front wheels are out of line, the top of the front axle tilted ahead, or the 
axle shifted on the springs, or a flat tire. 

8. If you had stopped on a hill, headed down, and the emergency brake alone 
would not hold the car, how would you leave the car to be safe? 

A. The front wheels should always be headed toward the curb if possible. Stop 
the motor and place the car in low speed or reverse and leave the clutch engaged. 
On starting the motor it is often difficult to use the starter or crank. In this case 
place the car in high gear, close the switch, hold the clutch out, release the brakes, 
and after the car has gained momentum engage the clutch which wall turn the motor 
over and start it. 

9. If on arriving at the bottom of a hill you should find that the high-speed gear 
had become disengaged and would not again engage, due to the high-speed dogs 
or notches sliding past each other, what would you do? 

A. Speed up the motor until the speed of the gear on the transmission shaft and 
the gear on the clutch shaft is the same when they will slip into mesh. 

10. If a car seems to drag when you attempt to shift gears and holds the shift lever 
firmly in place, how would you make your shift? 

A. Make a quick shift. Make the shift almost with the same motion of disengage- 
ing the clutch. 

11. What are the rules of the road? 

A. When passing a car going in your direction, pass on the other man’s left. 

When meeting a car, keep to the right. 

Never pass a street car taking on or discharging passengers. 

Always keep to tike right in passing a street car. 

Always give warning when going to turn a corner or approaching a road hidden by 
a turn or other obstruction. 

Always go around the center of a street intersection. 

Consider that you do not know what the other fellow is going to do. 

Always keep your car under perfect control. 

Always light your lamps as soon as dusk overtakes you. 

PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION ON MOTORS FOR ENGINE REPAIR MEN. 

1. What is the difference between a four-cycle and two-cycle motor? 

A. A four-cycle requires four strokes to complete a cycle while a two-cycle requires 
two. The construction is different in the respect that a two-cycle has no mechanical 
valves, or valve-operating parts, Gas is drawn in through crank case instead of di¬ 
rect into combustion chamber, etc. 

2. What is a carburetor? 

A. It is any device wherein gasoline and air are mixed for a proper combustion in 
an internal combustion engine. 

3. What is a magneto? 

A. Jt is a device for generating electricity when its armature is forced to revolve 
between the poles of its permanent magnet. 

4. How would you time a magneto? 

A. On ordinary motors in regards to position of piston it should fire when piston 
is approximately 20 degrees from top center, spark advanced, and 18 to 20 degrees 
after top center when retarded. 

5. In classifying motors according to valve arrangement what kinds are there? 

A. “T” head, exhaust on one side, intake on other. 

“L” head, all valves on one side. 

“I” head, overhead cam or valve in the head. 

6. What is the difference between high-tension and low-tension magnetos? 

A. A high-tension magneto generates a' high voltage and is used for the jump spark 
system. The low tension generates low voltage and is used in the make-and-break 
system, although it can produce a high-tension spark in combination with a secondary 
induction coil. 

7. What kinds of bearing are used in motors? 

A. Ball, babbitt or bronze. 

8. What is the function of flywheel? 

A. To balance and carry pistons over compression. 



42 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


9. State a few causes of preignition. 

A. Overheated cylinder, burning carbon. 

10. What proportions of gasoline and air would be near a proper adjustment? 

A. One part gasoline to 10 to 16 parts air. The proportions differ according to engine 
speed, kind of air, and gasoline. 

EXAMINATION FOR ENGINE REPAIR MEN—SERIES I. 

1. Q. What method do you use in fitting connecting rods and main bearings? 

A. As each bearing is tightened up either through removing shims or scraping a 

certain amount of bearing metal, the shaft should be turned to determine how tight 
each bearing actually is. Also tap bearing caps with a hammer in case they should 
be “set.” Where high-pressure oil system is used, the bearings are not to be.set as 
tight as where splash or force feed oil symptoms are used. About 0.002 is considered 
a good setting where high-pressure oil system is used. 

2. Q. Do you know the difference between a concentric and eccentric piston ring? 

A. A concentric ring is the same thickness all around from end to end, and an 

eccentric ring is thicker in the center than at the ends. Because of the thinness of 
the ends, the encentric ring will wear out the quickest. 

3. Q. What are indications of wear in a ball bearing? 

A. They may be heard to drop, also the races become rough by flaking off of the 
metal. If the races are not sufficiently hardened they may groove without flaking. 

4. Q. What method do you employ in fitting wrist pins? 

A. A loose pin may be due to the set screw becoming loose, or it may be caused 
by wear. They can, when renewed, be bushed in the piston and a force fit in the rod 
or vice versa. 

5. Q. Why is clearance on valve tappets necessary? 

A. To allow for the expansion of the valve stem when it becomes heated, and also 
to give the valve a free seat. 

6. Q. Does the diameter of the piston head vary from that of the bottom? 

A. Some variation of about 0.002; and some there is not any difference. 

7. Q. How do you lap in pistons and piston rings? 

A. Use a fine grade of carborundum on a “dummy” or old piston in the cylinder. 
When the new piston fits with proper clearance finish lapping in the new rings on 
the new piston with ground glass. 

8. Q. How is a six-cylinder motor balanced? 

A. The arrangement of the cranks produce a mechanical balancing effect in itself, 
but to help reduce vibration, timing of the explosions in the various cylinders is 
necessary. There is a difference in stationary balance and running balance. 

9. Q. Why must oil have a high flash point? 

A. As the piston rises in the cylinder the oil is left on the walls; when the piston 
goes down the oil is exposed to the burning gases. The length of time which the 
oil will continue to lubricate under this condition determines the value of the oil. 

10. Q. Can you name three conditions that are needed to start a gasoline motor, 
also to keep it running? 

A. Carburetion, ignition, compression. 

EXAMINATION FOR ENGINE REPAIR MAN—SERIES II. 

1. Q. What method of oil grooving should be used on bearings of high-speed motors 
using a high-pressure oil system and how tight should the bearings be set up? 

A. Never groove lengthwise on bearings oiled by a high-pressure system. Groove 
around the bearing at a slight angle. The bearings should be set 0.002 to 0.003 
inch loose, as the oil under pressure forms a film which floats the shaft and connecting 
rods while the shaft is revolving. 

2. Q. How do you take up the connecting rod bearings on a forked rod type of 
V-type motor? Why so? 

A. The connecting rods can not be taken up in this type of motor as it would throw 
the outside bearing surface or blade-rod bearing out of round. The blade rod itself 
is the only one that is adjustable. It should be 0.002 inch loose. 

3. Q. Should the crank shaft of a high-speed motor have any play? If not, why so? 

A. Yes; about 0.005 to 0.010 inch. The shaft is bound to heat and expand on a 

high-speed motor. As the greatest amount of expansion is always lengthwise and if 
there was no end play the shaft would buckle and even a very slight amount would 
cause it to bind in the bearings, with disastrous results to bearings and motor. 

4. Q. How do you time valves? 

A. Valve timing differs slightly in different types and makes of motors. The 
intake valve should start to open 5 to 8 degrees past top dead center and close 25 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


43 


to 45 degrees past bottom dead center. The exhaust valve begins to open 35 to 
45 degrees before bottom dead center and closes from 0 to 10 degrees past top dead 
center. The balance of the valve timing will follow correctly if the cam shaft is 
properly designed; therefore, if an integral or one-piece cam shaft is employed, it 
is only necessary to time the valves on one cylinder. If the cams are keyed on they 
may sometimes shear off the keys or twist on the shaft causing bad valve timing. 
(Important.) \alve timing should always be taken with the motor turning in the 
direction it is intended to run. 

5. Q. What is the effect of setting the valve tappets very close while the motor is 
cold? 

A. When the motor warms up the valve stems will expand lengthwise, due to the 
flame passing around them, and come in constant contact with the tappets, holding 
the valves open and allowing loss of compression. The result, if run in this condition, 
w iH be burned seats and face of the valves and loss of power and speed. 

6. Q. What is the proper clearance allowed on fitting new cast-iron pistons? On 
Lynite pistons? 

A. On cast-iron pistons allow from 0.003 to 0.004 inch on a piston from 3 to 4 inches 
in diameter. On Lynite pistons allow from 0.005 to 0.008 inch on the same size job. 

7. Q. What is the best system of anchoring a wrist pin in a high-speed motor using 
pressure oil system, and why? 

A Anchor the pin securely in the piston by using a set screw which enters a hole 
in the wrist pin through a tapped out boss on the inside of the piston and is kept 
from turning by a lock. The upper end of the connecting rod, which is bushed, is 
free to move on the pin. The reason for this system is that the bearing can be oiled 
better as high oil pressure systems have an oil passage or pipe leading from the crank 
throw up to the wrist-pin bearings. I f the pin were held stationary on the connecting 
rod and turned in the piston it would have greater bearing surface, but would have 
to depend on oil scraped from the cylinder walls and oil spray in the base for 
lubrication. 

8. Q. In which circuit is the condenser located? What is its purpose and what 
are the symptoms of condenser trouble? 

A. In the primary circuit. Its use is to prevent arcing at the breaker points by 
absorbing the current which otherwise has a tendency to continue to flow between 
the points after they break, and hold that current in storage until the points again 
close. Condenser trouble shows itself by burnt breaker points, a stringy spark, and 
irregular firing of the motor at high speed which might not show at low engine speed. 

9. Q. What effect does worn bearing in the magneto have upon the running of a 
motor? 

A. The bearings being worn will not allow for accurate setting of the breaker points, 
for when the armature is revolving it will wobble, causing a wide variation of break 
at the points. 

10. Q. What distance is allowed for the break of the points in a Bosch magneto? 
In Dixie magneto? In a Berling? 

A. Bosch, 0.015 inch; Dixie, 0.020 inch; Berling, about the same as a Bosch. 

EXAMINATION FOR ENGINE REPAIR MAN—SERIES III. 

1. How can you tell when you have the correct fit when fitting a wrist-pin bushing? 

A. If an expansion reamer is used, a good fit would be when the friction between 

the bushing and wrist pin would just support the weight of the connecting rod. If 
the bushing is filed or scraped, Prussian blue should be used to pick out the high 
places. 

2. What is a pressure oiling system? 

A. The pressure in a pressure oiling system is delivered by a pump which pumps 
the oil from the pump in the crank case to the main bearings of the crank shaft. After 
passing through the main bearings it is led by pipes to all other moving parts. 

3. What is the relation of the speed of the cam shaft to that of the crank shaft in 
a four-cycle motor? 

A. The cam shaft turns once while the crank shaft turns twice. 

4. What is the relation between the speed of the magneto armature and the speed 
of the crank shaft in a six-cylinder motor? 

A. The magneto armature turns one and one-half revolutions while the crank 
shaft turns once. 

5. Should a crank shaft bearing be fitted according to the oiling system? 

A. Yes, on a pressure-feed oiling system as much as three or four thousandths play 
is allowed to allow for a film of oil next to the shaft. With the splash system the 
allowance is made for the oil except in oil grooves. 



44 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


6. If the gasoline tank should run dry on a machine equipped with the vacuum 
feed, how would you start the motor again? 

,A. The gasoline tank should be supplied and the vacuum system primed. 

7. What is the difference between a high and low tension magneto? 

A. A high-tension current is taken directly from the high tension while the induc¬ 
tion coil is necessary when a low-tension magneto is used. 

8. How could you determine the firing order of a motor? 

A. Watch the intake valve until it opens on number one cylinder, then note the 
order of opening on the other cylinders. 

9. What should the clearance be between the exhaust valve stem and tappet? 

A. About four or five thousandths when the motor is cold. 

10. What is the work of the distributor? 

A. The work of the distributor is to distribute the high-tension current to the 
proper cylinder at the correct time. 

EXAMINATION FOR ENGINE REPAIR MAN—SERIES IV. 

1. What causes a motor to lose power? 

A. The tightening of bearings from the lack of oil, low compression caused from 
leaky rings, bad adjustments on carburetor, carbonized cylinders, and ignition dis¬ 
orders. 

2. What is the proper way to grind valves and when do you know they are properly 
seating? 

A. You first put a spring under the head of the valve, then with a screw driver 
or valve tool keep turning valve around on the seat with valve grinding compound 
on the face of the valve, every once in a while lifting the valve up and give it a half 
turn and then reseat again. You can test the valves with gasoline to see if the valves 
are properly seating; if not, the gasoline will leak through. 

3. What clearance is usually allowed between valve stem and plunger rod in 
timing? 

A. About five thousandths inch when the valve is closed when the motor is cold. 

4. How would you repair a slightly scored cylinder without reboring? 

A. You could lap it out with a grinding compound. You could put in an over¬ 
size piston; also, you could use a heavier grade of oil. 

5. How would you loosen a connecting-rod bearing if it was too tight? 

A. You would take the connecting-rod bearing cap off and put thin shims between 
it on the sides of the cap. 

6. How would you determine the firing order of a motor? 

A. The way the cam shaft is made to operate the valves by the aid of the valve 
lifts. Also by watching your intake valves. 

7. What causes back firing? 

A. A back fire is caused either by the inlet valve being held open, spark occurring 
while the valve is open, or by a rare mixture. 

8. How would you fit a wrist pin in an aluminum piston? 

A. You should heat the piston first, then fit the wrist pin in it so when the piston 
becomes cold it is a tight fight. 

9. What is usually the clearance between breaker points? 

A. Between twenty and thirty thousandths. 

10. What effect has preignition on a motor? 

A. It causes motor to run after switch is shut off. It causes your cylinders to heat 
up. It sometimes ignites a charge of gas in the manifold if the intake valve is open, 
causing back fire in the carburetor. 

EXAMINATION FOR ENGINE REPAIR MEN—SERIES V. 

1. What is the difference between a two-cycle and a four-cycle motor? 

A. A two-cycle motor is a motor that requires only two strokes to complete the 
cycle or a power impulse every revolution. The piston draws in a charge of gas into 
the crank case. During this stroke the charge already in cylinder is being compressed 
and as the piston is nearing the end of the stroke it is ignited. During the next 
stroke the piston is being driven outward and compresses the charge drawn into crank 
case previously. As the piston is nearing the end of this stroke it uncovers the ex¬ 
haust port, and the burnt gases are forced out. On this same stroke a new charge of 
gas is drawn into cylinder from crank case through the inlet port. 

A four-cycle motor is a motor that requires four strokes to complete the cycle or a 
power impulse to each cylinder every two revolutions The first stroke of thte piston 
draws in a charge of gas; suction stroke. The second stroke of the piston compresses 
the gas; compression stroke. The third stroke is the power stroke, caused by the 


TRAINING' FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 45 

£as boing ignited. The fourth or exhaust stroke is the one that cleans out the 
cylinder of remaining smoke, leaving it clean for the next charge. 

2. How would you retime a four-cylinder four-cycle motor? 

A. To time the valves, the first thing to do is to get No. 1 piston on top center, 
rhen, supposing on this motor (the valves on some motors are timed earlier or later) 
the exhaust valve should close one ihirtv-second of an inch past top center, we would 
turn the motor over slowly until the piston has gone down one thirty-second of an inch 
and set the cam shaft so that, exhaust valve is just seated. Then, to time motor 
to spark, turn motor over until No. 1 piston is going up on its compression stuke 
and set the magneto or distributor so that it will deliver the spark to this cylinder 
just a few degrees before it reaches top center. 

3. What is the difference between a high-tension and a low-tension magneto? 

A. A high-tension magneto is a magneto with a double-wound armature. The 

first or primary winding is of coarse wire. In this wire is generated a low-tension 
current as the armature revolves between the ends of the magnets. Then on top 
of this is the secondary winding of fine wire. The low-tension current flows to the 
breaker, where it is broken by the points operated by a cam. This current then 
does not flow through the points, but is taken up by a condenser. This breaking 
of the current creates a high-tension current which flows to the distributor and plugs. 
A low-tension magneto is a magneto with only a single-wound armature and generates 
only a low-tension current. 

4. What is a distributor? 

A. A distributor is where the current generated by the magneto is collected by a 
brush and distributed to the proper cylinder at the proper time. 

5. What will cause a motor to misfire? 

A. Spark plug trouble, short circuits, breaker points not adjusted properly, dirty or 
pitted breaker points, water in magneto, carburetor not adjusted properly, valve 
trouble, motor not timed properly, magneto not timed properly. 

6. Explain how a carburetor works. 

A. A carburetor is used to mix air with gasoline. There are several kinds, but 
. the principles are about the same. The gasoline is controlled in the bowl by a float 
to which is fastened a needle valve, which keeps the gasoline at a certain level. 
The piston on its suction stroke draws in a charge of air through air valve of carbu¬ 
retor, which picks up a part of the gasoline as it passes over it and by the time it 
gets to the cylinder it will be mixed with the air, and then when it is compressed 
and heated in the cylinder it is sufficiently broken up to make a good fuel. Adjust¬ 
ments are provided allowing more air or gas to enter; this to get the proper mixture. 

7 . Q. Name some causes of a motor overheating. 

A. Bearings or other tight-fitting parts causing friction, preignition, out of time, 
not enough oil, water, not flowing through jackets or radiator, retarded spark, too rich 
mixture, and carbon. 

8. Q. Name some causes of a motor losing compression. 

A. Sticking valves, leaks around spark plugs, leaks around gaskets, pitted valves, 
piston rings stuck or broken, scored cylinders, valves not adjusted properly. 

9. Q. IIow would you take care of a motor? 

A. Give it a careful inspection periodically; see that all bolts, nuts, gaskets, etc., are 
tight; keep it clean at all times; remove and clean spark plugs; adjust valve tappets, 
if needed; oil all connections, throttle, spark, etc.; see that there is plenty of water in 
radiator at all times and that it is circulating. About every 1,000 miles wash out all 
oil and put in a fresh supply. 

10. Q. If a motor failed to start, how would you start it? 

A. The first thing to do is to see that your gasoline flow to carburetor is all right; 
then see if your magneto is generating current and if it is delivering it to the plugs. 
If this is all right, then check your soark and valve timing. 

EXAMINATION FOR MAGNETO REPAIR MAN—SERIES I. 

1. Q. What is a battery ignition? Why is it still used? 

A. Battery ignition gives practically a continuous spark without the assistance of 
the engine; therefore it would help starting a motor in cold weather. 

2. Q. In ignition work what kind of a spark is needed? 

A. Since heat is the mechanical energy of a gasoline motor, heat is more essential 
at the plug point than the size of the spark. 

3. Q. If a magneto is gear driven, what precaution should be taken in installing it 
on a motor? 

A. If the gears mesh too loosely, they can jerk back and forth and strain the magneto. 
And if meshed too tightly, the bearings on the armature shaft will be ruined in a short 
time. Timing gears should never “bottom.” 


46 


TRAINING TOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


4. Q. Where are the armature shaft bearings, and what is the clearance between 
the armature and the pole pieces? 

A. The bearings are in the end plates and are fitted to carry the armature about 
0.002 from the pole pieces. 

5. Q. How can you test the magnets of a magneto? 

A. By taking hold of the magneto shaft at the coupling or gear end, turn the magneto 
in its proper direction. Notice how much pull or resistance it offers as you turn it. 
It should feel a good deal like the compression in a motor. By feeling a magneto in 
this way that you know is in good shape you can form a good idea as to the condition 
of the magneto you are working on. 

6. Q. If the magneto is on the engine and you wish to find out how good the spark 
is, what do you do? 

A. The best place to test it will be from the collector brush which collects the sec¬ 
ondary current from the armature. Then cause a spark to jump from the brush holder 
by holding a screw driver against some part of the engine and close to the brush holder. 
You should get a spark to jump about one-eighth of an inch. 

7. Q. What three important duties does a high-tension magneto perform? 

A. A high-tension magneto generates current, it “steps it up,” and it hands out or 
distributes. 

8. Q. Explain what a safety gap is, and how does it act? 

A. The secondary current is something like 20,000 volts, and must be well insulated. 
If one of the wires to the plugs should break, there would be an outlet for this secondary 
current, and it would jump through the easiest way. It would jump through the in¬ 
sulation of the armature and puncture the insulation. To avoid this, a “safety gap” 
is provided. It is on the magneto, and has points separated farther than the points of 
spark plugs, but close enough so that the resistance will be less than the resistance of 
the insulation in the armature. 

) 

EXAMINATION FOR MAGNETO REPAIR MAN—SERIES II. 

1. How does a magneto differ from a dynamo? 

(а) A dynamo has field magnets of soft iron or mild steel wound with wire, through * 
which circulates the whole or a portion of the current generated by the machine. 

(б) A magneto, on the other hand, has field magnets constructed of steel and 
permanently magnetized. 

2. What is a condenser? ' 

(a) A condenser is used to absorb the self-induced current of the primary winding 
and thus prevent it opposing the rapid fall of the primary current. 

3. What is a contact maker? 

(a) A device which momentarily closes and breaks the circuit at the time of the 
spark. 

4. What is a contact breaker? 

(a) A device which keeps the circuit closed, except at the time of the spark. 

5. What circuit does a timer control? 

(a) It controls the primary circuit. 

6. What is a distributer? 

(a) A distributer controls both the primary and secondary currents. 

7. What is an interrupter? 

(a) An interrupter on a magneto is a contact breaker which breaks the primary 
circuit at the time a spark is required. 

8. Name the three parts of a magneto. 

(a) The magneto fields. 

( b) The armature and wire windings. 

(c) The distributer timer. 

(d) Platinum contact points and condenser. 

9. How would you know when your magneto condenser was starting to burn up, 
and what is an air gap? 

(а) A continuous pitting of the breaker pointer would mean that the condenser 
was overloaded and absorbing too much current, then it would soon burn itself up. 

(б) An air gap is used to let the current jump across in case there is a foul spark plug, 
which if there was no air gap would cause a dead ground and burn out the primary 
winding. An air gap is wider than a spark gap. 

10. What distance should the contact breaker points be set? 

(a) About one thirty-second of an inch or five thousandths of an inch or anywhere 
between five thousandths and ten thousandths of an inch is generally used. 

( b ) How often should a magneto be oiled between 5,000 and 10,000 miles? 

11. What would cause a short in a magneto? 

(a) Water or oil getting down into and around armature wires and oil on the breaker 
points. 


TRAINING FOR CONSCRIPTED MEN. 


47 


EXAMINATION FOR METAL WORKERS—SHEET AND ART. 

Questions used to determine candidates’ qualifications and rating as a metal worker. 
Variations of basic questions depend upon the individual candidate. 

1. What type of a metal worker are you? 

A. Sheet-metal worker or art-metal worker. 

2. How many, years have you been a metal worker? 

3. Name the largest firm by which you have been employed? When and where 
were you last employed? What is the highest salary you have ever been paid? Can 
you furnish recommendations? 

4. Has your responsibility been as an apprentice, a journeyman, a foreman, or shop 
manager? If so, what references can you furnish? 

5. What is the nature of the work on which you have been employed? 

A. Shopwork or outside work. Hammered wrought-iron grilles and other hammered 
art work, or hammered sheet metal, for cornices, drips, spouts, etc. Chiseled steel or 
carved metal? 

6. What is the best piece of work on which you ever worked? 

7. Can you operate metal-working machines to be found in a metal-working shop? 
A. Sucn machines as an automatic hammer, a chipper, a drill punch, shapers, etc., 

crimpers, rolls, formers, brakes, benders, swedgers. 

8. What kinds of metal have you worked and on what gauges? 

A. Copper, brass, galvanized iron, wrought iron, steel, bronze, black iron and tin. 

9. Can you read drawings? ' 

10. Are you also a sheet-metal draftsman? 

o 









BULLETIN No. 5 


Vocational Rehabilitation 
of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors 


A PRELIMINARY STUDY 


ISSUED BY THE 

FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
WASHINGTON 


FEBRUARY, 1918 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1918 


t<AK<ed nL 








LC loots' 

hr 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


MEMBERS. 


David F. Houston, Chairman, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 
William C. Redfield, 

Secretary of Commerce. 
William B. Wilson, 

Secretary of Labor. 

P. P. Claxton, 

Commissioner of Education. 


James P. Munroe, 

Manufacture and Commerce. 
Charles A. Greathouse, 
Agriculture. 

Arthur E. Holder, 

Labor. 


executive staff. 

C. A. Prosser. Director. 


Layton S. Hawkins, 

Assistant Director for 

Agricultural Education. 
Lewis H. Carris, 

Assistant Director for 

Industrial Education. 
Cheesman A. Herrick, 

Special Agent for 

Commercial Education. 


Josephine T. Berry, 

Assistant Director for Home 

Economics Education. 
Charles H. Winslow, 

Assistant Director for Research. 


All communications should be addressed to 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. 

( 2 ) 

D. of D. 

APR 22 1918 







65th CONGRESS, 
2d Session. 


S. RES. 189. 


IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES. 

January 28, 1918. 

Mr. Smith of Georgia submitted the following resolution; which was 
considered and agreed to. 


RESOLUTION. 

1 Resolved, That the Federal Board for Vocational Edu- 

2 cation be directed to furnish to the Senate such information 

3 as it may have or can readily obtain on the rehabilitation 
and vocational reeducation of crippled soldiers and sailors. 


4 





LIST OF PUBLICATIONS. 


Annual Report for 1917. 

Bulletin No. 1. Statement of Policies. 

Bulletin No. 2. Training Conscripted Men for Service as Badio and 
Buzzer Operators in the United States Army 
(International code). 

Bulletin No. 3. Emergency Training in Shipbuilding—Evening and 
Part-Time Classes for Shipyard Workers. 

Bulletin No. 4. Mechanical and Technical Training for Conscripted 
Men (Air Division, U. S. Signal Corps). 

Bulletin No. 5. Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and 
Sailors. 

Bulletin No. 6. Training of Teachers for Occupational Therapy for 
the Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers' and 
Sailors. 

Bulletin No. 7. Emergency War Training for Motor-Truck Drivers 
and Chauffeurs. 

Bulletin No. 8. Emergency War Training for Machine-Shop Oc¬ 
cupations, Blacksmithing, Sheet-Metal Working, 
and Pipe Fitting. 

Bulletin No. 9. Emergency War Training for Electricians, Tele¬ 
phone Repairmen, Linemen, and Cable Splicers. 

Bulletin No. 10. Emergency War Training for Gas-Engine, Motor- 
Car, and Motor-Cycle Repairmen. 

BulletinNo.il. Emergency War Training Tor Oxy-Acetylene Weld¬ 
ers. 

Bulletin No. 12. Emergency War Training for Airplane Mechanics— 
Engine Repairmen, Woodworkers, Riggers, and 
Sheet-Metal Workers. 

(4) 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 


Federal Board for Vocational Education, 

Office of the Board, 
Washington, January 29, 19IS. 

Hon. Thomas R. Marshall, 

President United States Senate, 

Washington, D. C. 

Sir: The Federal Board for Vocational Education is in receipt of 
the following resolution of the Senate of January 28, 1918: 

Resolved, That the Federal Board for Vocational Education be directed to furnish 
to the Senate such information as it may have or can readily obtain on the rehabilitation 
and vocational reeducation of crippled soldiers and sailors. 

Pursuant thereto there is herewith transmitted a preliminary study 
hy the Federal board entitled “ Vocational Rehabilitation and Place¬ 
ment of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors .’ 1 
Respectfully, 

James P. Munroe, 

Vice Chairman. 


5 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 


Part I.—General principles and policies: Page. 

Foreword. 0 

The problem. 11 

The need for vocational education for disabled soldiers and sailors. 12 

1. To insure economic independence. 12 

2. To avoid vocational degeneration. 12 

3. To prevent exploitation. 12 

4. To conserve trade skill. 12 

5. To insure national rehabilitation. 12 

G. To adjust supply of labor to demand. 13 

7. To develop new vocational efficiency.. 13 

Cost of vocational reeducation. 13 

Preparation for victims of industry after the war. 14 

Specific services to be rendered. 14 

Immediate action required. 15 

Public support. 15 

Public versus private control and administration. 17 

Military discipline. 18 

National versus State administration and control. 19 

Cooperation with the States.... 20 

Cooperation with private agencies. 21 

Financing the work of vocational rehabilitation. 21 

Appropriation by the Federal Government. 

(a) Provision for preliminary survey work. 22 

( b) Provision for the conduct of vocational reeducation work. 22 

(c) Provision for support of men and their dependents during the 

period of reeducation. 22 

Appropriation by the States. 22 

Appropriation by municipalities. 23 

Contributions by private and semipublic agencies. 23 

Need for training teachers for rehabilitation. 24 

Need for early enactment of legislation. 26 

Conference to formulate a comprehensive plan of rehabilitation. 28 

Legislation must be broad and flexible. 29 

Part II.—Foreign legislation and experience: 

Coordination and centralization of authority. 31 

England; 

Naval and military war pensions act of 1915. 32 

Work of the statutory committee. 33 

Temporary allowance. 34 

Hospital discharges. 35 

Provision for reeducation. 36 

Ministry-of-pensions act. 36 

Naval and military w r ar-pensions act of 1917. 37 

Regulations for training disabled men. 38 

Employment. 39 

Trade advisory committees. 39 

Advisory wages boards. 40 

Inquiry into trades. 40 


7 
















































8 CONTENTS. 

Part II.—Foreign legislation and experience—Continued. 

France: Page. 

Early efforts for reeducation. 42 

Office national des mutiles et reformes de la Guerre. 43 

Provincial committees. 45 

Rehabilitation. 45 

Register.s........ 46 

Inquiry into trades. 46 

Reservation of employments. 46 

Employee’s liability in case of injury. 47 

Canada: 

Military hospitals commission. 47 

Purposes and methods of the commission. 49 

Blank forms used by military hospitals commission. 50 

Belgium. 55 

Australia. 55 

Italy. 55 

South Africa. 57 

Newfoundland. 57 

India. 58 

New Zealand. 58 

Part III.—The size of the problem: 

Some factors to be taken into consideration in estimating the number that 

will require vocational reeducation. 50 

Part IV.—Outline for an exhaustive study and report: 

Vocational reeducation and placement of disabled soldiers and sailors. 73 

Part V.—A bibliography of the war cripple. 77 























FOREWORD. 


This document is the outcome of a special research ordered by the 
Federal Board for Vocational Education on August 16, 1917. The 
board took this step because it recognized that the United States 
would soon be confronting the problem of rehabilitating the disabled 
soldiers and sailors resulting from the great war. As the vocational 
reeducation of these men has come to be a vital part of their rehabili¬ 
tation, it is believed that the study here presented may be of servico 
in the discharge of our great obligation as a people to those injured in 
the national defense. 

The experience of our allies in vocational rehabilitation has been 
collated and analyzed. The lessons gained by them are presented for 
the guidance of all those interested in the problem in our own country. 
Certain general principles and policies toward which this experience 
points have been put forth as the basis of any sound program of Fed¬ 
eral legislation and national action. 

While the report deals primarily with the handicapped soldier 
and sailor, attention is directed particularly to the discussion of the 
possibility of providing vocational reeducation for the victims of 
industry as well as of war. 

The report also outlines a complete series of studies of the entire 
problem as the basis for future and more detailed investigations in 
this field. 

This study was made by Dr. John Cummings under the supervision 
of Charles H. Winslow, assistant director for reasearch. Acknowl¬ 
edgments for valuable suggestions arc hereby made to T. B. Kidner, 
vocational secretary of the Canadian Military Hospitals Commission; 
Royal Meeker, Commission of Labor Statistics; and R. M. Little, 
chairman of the United States Employees Compensation Commis¬ 
sion. 

C. A. Prosser, Director. 

9 







VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION AND PLACEMENT OF DISABLED 
SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


PART I. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND POLICIES. 

Soon the United States will he facing the man} r problems involved 
in the rehabilitation, reeducation, and placement of soldiers and 
sailors disabled, in the war. The first question is the size of the task 
in terms of numbers of handicapped men to be dealt with. 

THE PROBLEM. 

Any estimate of the number that will be returned disabled or that 
will require vocational reeducation must necessarily be based upon 
certain assumptions regarding the duration of the war, the number 
of men maintained at the front, and the proportion of casualties. 
These assumptions must be based upon the experience of the bellige¬ 
rents during the last three years. 

There are at present approximately 13,000,000 wounded and 
crippled soldiers in the belligerent countries of Europe, including 
3,000,000 cases of amputation. In Germany alone, it is reported, 
500,000 men are under treatment in the hospitals, the number of leg 
amputations during 1916 being 16,000. 

During the next few months the return of wounded, crippled, and 
invalided men from the over-seas forces of the United States will 
begin, and will continue thereafter for an indefinite period until the 
return of the over-seas forces after the termination of the war. 

Without taking account of more remote contingencies, it seems not 
improbable, as statistics given in Part III show, that 100,000 dis¬ 
abled men will be returned during the first year of fighting and that 
at least 20,000 of these men will require total or partial vocational 
reeducation in order to overcome handicaps incurred in service. 

A second year of fighting may add 40,000, a third 60,000 to the 
number requiring such reeducation, making a total for three years 
of fighting of 120,000. This assumes 1,000,000 men overseas the 
first year, and an increase of 1,000,000 men overseas in each suc¬ 
ceeding year. 

The figures given above may underestimate the development of 
the overseas forces, as well as the proportion of casualties in the 
closing stages of the war, when offensive strategy and tactics and 
fighting in the open to break through the German lines may succeed 
the trench warfare of the past two years. 


11 



12 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

THE NEED FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR DISABLED SOLDIERS AND 

SAILORS. 

Every one of the leading European countries engaged in the great 
war has already made provision for the vocational reeducation and 
placement of disabled soldiers and sailors. The consideration which 
moved England, Canada, France, Italy, Germany, and Austria to 
undertake this work is one which will appeal with even greater force 
to the people of this country. 

Such training is required: 

1. To insure economic independence. —Vocational reeducation will 
reestablish the disabled soldier or sailor as an independent, self- 
respecting economic unit. Any other policy will inevitably induce 
economic dependency with its inherent moral and social evils. For 
these men and for the community also, moral and social as well as 
economic well-being, is in a large measure, at stake. 

It is to be noted that the age of the conscripted army (21 to 31 
years) is such that the men are young enough to be susceptible to 
training, and that the benefits of such training will accrue during a 
period equivalent to the normal expectation of life for men in early 
manhood. 

Recognizing the value of vocational training some of the men 
were taking such training when drafted. This interrupted training 
should be resumed. 

2. To avoid vocational degeneration. —Experience has demonstrated 
that disabled men while under hospital treatment naturally tend in 
many instances to fall into a state of chronic dependence, characterized 
by loss of ambition. The difficulty of lifting them out of this well- 
recognized phase increases rapidly during the period immediately 
following convalescence. Initiation of vocational training at the 
earliest possible moment and persistent, systematic development of 
thi3 training after convalescence will avoid this danger of vocational 
degeneration. 

Once the men have fallen into this state of chronic dependence or 
have drifted back into industry without training, they can not be 
industrially recovered. 

3. To prevent exploitation. —Without the protection of vocational 
reeducation, together with systematic reestablishment in wage-earn¬ 
ing employment, the handicapped man will drift about in indus¬ 
try, an unskilled laborer and a subject for exploitation by the 
unscrupulous. 

4 .To conserve trade skill. —The policy of vocational rehabilitation 
is one of conservation. Disabled men skilled in specific trades will 
be, so far as possible, reestablished in those trades by vocational 
reeducation. Without such training acquired trade experience will 
in many cases be lost, and the ranks of skilled labor will be to that 
extent depleted. Incidentally, the drifting of handicapped men in 
any considerable number into unskilled employments will occasion 
demoralization and impair wage standards. 

5. To insure national rehabilitation. —The European countries have 
found the conservation of trade skill and experience to be a factor 
of vital importance in national rehabilitation. In these countries the 
conduct of industries, commerce, and agriculture, even during the prog¬ 
ress of the war, has become largely dependent upon the reestablish¬ 
ment in civil employment of men disabled for further military service. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 13 


It should ho home in mind that the disabled men are, in many 
cases, specially trained and skilled. If allowed, through lack of such 
reeducation as they require, to sink into the ranks of the unskilled, 
their places in the Nation’s scheme of economic productivity can 
not bo filled. No supply of skilled men is now, or will be after the 
war, available from other countries, since every country at war is 
experiencing and will continue to experience in the yearn following 
the war a great scarcity of skilled labor. 

Vocational reeducation of men disabled for military service is, 
therefore, a means not only of conserving trade skill, but of conserv¬ 
ing it in a time of national emergency and of preventing in some 
degree the scarcity of skilled labor that is certain to develop as the 
■war progresses. The nation which does not conserve the vocational 
skill of its trained workers will to that extent weaken its recuperative 
and competitive power and to that extent will consequently fail to 
achieve the immediate national rehabilitation of its industrial, 
commercial, and agricultural power. 

6. To adjust supply of labor to demand .—The return to civil employ¬ 
ment of large numbers of men under the abnormal conditions of the 
period of demobilization will occasion far-reaching economic dis¬ 
turbance and maladjustment of labor supply to demand, unless that 
return is made under some comprehensive scheme of administration. 
Vocational reeducation will provide one means of so directing the 
return of men into civil employments as to occasion the least possible 
disturbance, and will go far to avoid impairment of established 
standards of living. 

7. To develop new vocational cjficifney .—In individual cases, 
undoubtedly, new vocational capacities will be developed in handi¬ 
capped men by systematic vocational reeducation. In many cases 
the selection of wage-earning employments has been originally 
accidental, and without due regard to natural aptitude. Vocational 
rehabilitation, by training for new employments for which the men 
have natural aptitude, may develop entirely new vocational capaci¬ 
ties, making the men even more efficient producers than they were 
before. 

Vocational training has established its claim as a means of produc¬ 
ing and increasing economic efficiency, and in the Smith-Hughes 
Act, among others, Congress has indorsed this sort of training by 
appropriating Federal money to its support in the public schools. 
Such training can not consistently be denied to the disabled soldier 
and sailor—whose need is special and peculiar on account of his 
handicap incurred in the public service—while extending it to all 
other workers having no special claim to Government favor. All 
workers may have their productive efficiency increased by vocational 
training, but in the case of the disabled soldier or sailor the need 
of such training is imperative and the obligation to give it is clear. 

COST OF VOCATIONAL REEDUCATION. 

The immediate expenditure involved in vocational training for 
disabled men will not be materially greater than that which would be 
involved in providing financial support without vocational training. 
Under any scheme the disabled men must be provided for during 
disability. In its initial stages vocational rehabilitation has a 



14 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


recognized therapeutic value, tending to hasten convalescence. 
"Established hospital practice as well as experience in England, 
France, Canada, and other belligerent countries has demonstrated 
this to be the fact. Convalescent hospitals must be in any event 
provided and equipped, and the additional expenditure required for 
vocational rehabilitation after convalescence will not materially 
increase the immediate burden of the war. 

Vocational rehabilitation can not, in fact, be regarded as costing 
the community, except temporarily, anything whatever. The dis¬ 
ability of the soldier or sailor is an economic handicap reducing pro¬ 
ductive power. Unless the men are vocationally reestablished, and 
to the extent that they are not completely reestablished, the economic 
loss to the community will be cumulative during a long period of 
years. Even a slight increase in vocational capacity, as a result of 
vocational training initiated during the period of convalescence and 
continued for a few weeks or months after convalescence, will result 
in an economic gain which, also, will be cumulative over a long 
period. This aggregate cumulative gain will certainly exceed any 
expenditures required for vocational rehabilitation. 

If the only alternative policy to that of vocational rehabilitation be 
adopted, namely, the policy of providing financial support without 
vocational training, there is reason to believe, judging from the 
experience of previous wars in the United States, that the financial 
burden upon the community will not be materially diminished for 
many years. 

f The expenditure for vocational rehabilitation is necessarily con¬ 
tinued over only a very brief period. Within a few months the 
disabled man will have been given all the special training that can 
advantageously be given to him. The current expenditure for 
vocational rehabilitation will'therefore diminish rapidly during the 
months immediately following the war, and will largely terminate 
within one or two years. The cost of maintaining the disabled man 
and his dependents as wards for their natural lifetime would certainly 
far exceed that of vocational rehabilitation. 

PREPARATION FOR VICTIMS OF INDUSTRY AFTER THE WAR. 

One of the most important arguments for undertaking the voca¬ 
tional rehabilitation of disabled soldiers and sailors is that all the 
experience and all the special equipment required for emergency war 
work will be needed to provide for similar work in the vocational 
rehabilitation of men disabled in factories and workshops, of the 
victims of accident in all dangerous employments, and of the thou¬ 
sands of otherwise injured and crippled persons thrown upon the 
community each year. The number of sucn persons in normal times 
greatly exceeds the capacity thus far developed for their vocational 
rehabilitation, and it is certain that the experience gamed in the war 
emergency, together with the special equipment and capital expendi¬ 
ture, can be utilized in industry after the war emergency is passed. 

SPECIFIC SERVICES TO BE RENDERED. 

The problem of vocational rehabilitation would seem to include 
the following services: (1) Registration of each man returned, 
including a description of his disability, or any condition which may 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 15 


prevent him from earning full livelihood, and an estimate of the 
degree of his vocational incapacity, in his former occupation, if he 
can return to it, or, if not, in some other occupation; (2) provision 
for occupational exercises in hospital workshops during the period of 
convalescence; (3) provision for vocational reeducation of convales¬ 
cents in cases requiring such training; (4) placement in a wage- 
earning occupation of men vocationally fit or rehabilitated; and (5) 
continuous registration and follow-up work, including maintenance 
of special wage agreements where efficiency has been reduced, and 
handicaps determined. 

IMMEDIATE ACTION REQUIRED. 

Efficient accomplishment of this program demands immediate 
action. Some of the preliminary steps that should be taken at once 
are: (1) Adequate provision for the financial support of a program of 
vocational reeducation for these men; (2) organization of agencies 
to secure from the start proper administrative control, flexibility, 
and cooperation; (3) survey of experience and achievement in this 
work in foreign countries; (4) survey and analysis of occupations 
and industrial processes with a view to classification in terms of 
handicaps; (5) survey of industrial establishments and other agencies 
of employment; (6) development of courses of instruction in different 
occupations for type handicaps; (7) training of teachers; (8) pro¬ 
vision of suitable equipment; (9) devising of new methods of train¬ 
ing; (10) adaptation of tools and of machine attachments for use by 
the handicapped; (11) development of an organization for placing 
trained men in wage-earning employments under fair conditions; 
(12) development of a scheme of registration and follow-up work, 
with reference to men placed. 

The steps taken by Canada, as described in a recent report of the 
Canadian Military Hospitals Commission, furnishes an illuminating 
illustration of the kina and magnitude of the difficulties involved. 
(See Part II, pp. 31 to 64.) 

PUBLIC SUPPORT. 

Whatever private resources may bo mado available for vocational 
rehabilitation, the obligation is clearly upon the public to provide 
amply for this work. Every European nation has already recog¬ 
nized and has written this obligation into legislation. Some of the 
reasons follow; 

1. The public, through the National Government, called theso 
men into military service where they incurred injuries. The public 
is, therefore, under obligation to bring them back to civil life rehabili¬ 
tated as far as possible, not only in body but in capacity to resume 
normal economic life. 

2. Every sacrifice and loss sustained to save the institutions of 
the country imposes an obligation on the Nation which can be only 
partially discharged by providing vocational reeducation to the 
fullest possible extent. 

3. Through the enactment by Congress of the war-risk insurance 
bill, as well as through the physical care of wounded soldiers by the 
hospital service of the Army and Navy, the National Government 


16 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

clearly recognizes a responsibility to those wounded in its military 
service. The policy of supporting rehabilitation from public funds 
is consistent with these already established policies. 

4. The disabled soldier and sailor of the present war has, by the 
legislation already enacted by Congress, been made a ward of the 
Nation, and the obligation to give him vocational training is cer¬ 
tainly as great as in the case of other national wards, such as the 
Indian. 

5. Through the Smith-Hughes Act, the Government has already 
recognized its obligation to give vocational training to the civilian 
youth of the country. Its obligation to give such training to the 
disabled soldier or sailor is much greater. 

6. In the end the cost of the work, whether carried on by the 
public or by private funds, will be borne by the people. The burden 
is a democratic right, and it may safely be assumed that the people 
will demand as a privilege the opportunity directly to discharge their 
fundamental obligation. 

It may be urged, however, (a) that large private foundations 
are or will be available for carrying on the vocational rehabilitation 
of disabled soldiers or sailors, that they will prove to be adequate, 
and that they should be fully utilized; ( b ) that if developed with 
private resources, an opportunity will be afforded for volunteer ser¬ 
vice and support, which otherwise would not be utilized; (c) that 
private agencies, being highly differentiated, can meet the diverse 
needs of individual cases more completely than can Government 
agencies; and ( d ) that by utilizing private resources the burden 
of taxation upon the community will be lessened. 

Against the policy of devolving the work upon private resources 
the following contentions may be presented for consideration: 

1. Private support would unavoidably stigmatize as charity the 
work of rehabilitating the disabled soldiers and sailors, a work 
obviously in no sense a charity, but clearly the partial discharge of 
an obligation resting upon the whole community. 

2. The work of rehabilitation should not be regarded as voluntary, 
but should be accepted as obligatory upon the community, a ser¬ 
vice to be provided for out of taxation, forcing the unwilling, if there 
be any such, as well as the willing, to contribute. 

3. Private agencies may prove inadequate and fail. No assur¬ 
ance whatever can be obtained in advance that they will prove 
to be adequate and successful. 

4. Private resources almost certainly will not be available in dif¬ 
ferent sections of the country in proportion to the local needs for 
rehabilitation. The disabled soldier or sailor should be returned 
as nearly as possible to his home community, and vocationally 
reestablished in that community. For any local inadequacy there 
would be no certain remedy in voluntarily contributed private 
resources. 

5. Private philanthropy has no certain and continuous sources 
from which to derive funds. Neither has it any certain resources 
capable of responding adequately to meet the needs of a sudden emer¬ 
gency, such as may develop in the course of the war. 

6. The history of such institutions as asylums for the deaf, the dumb, 
the blind, the crippled and deformed, show a general tendency to pass 
from private to public support. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 17 


7. Private support carries with it always some measure of private 
control, and such control may ultimately prove pernicious. 

It is fully recognized, of course, that a large field is open for the 
voluntary cooperation of private with public agencies in providing 
for the welfare of disabled soldiers and sailors. Private resources can 
render service in making studies, in conducting experiments, and in 
preparing teachers. The faculties of endowed institutions may un¬ 
dertake to give training, under direction of the National Government, 
and such training may be in part paid for by the National Govern¬ 
ment. The services which may be assumed by private agencies are 
indicated in the account of the activities of such agencies in foreign 
countries. (See Part II.) 

PUBLIC VERSUS PRIVATE CONTROL AND ADMINISTRATION. 

The following arguments have been advanced in support of private 
control and administration. It is urged— 

1. That private control would be free from the embarrassment of 
legislative definition of powers and functions, and free to adjust itself 
to needs as they develop, without waiting for enabling acts. 

2. That private agencies could command the services of experts 
not available for public employment. 

3. That private control is necessary to enlist private support, which 
will not be forthcoming if the enterprise be retained under exclusive 
public administration. 

4. That private control will insure the cooperation of diverse 
agencies already in existence. 

The principal arguments advanced in support of public control and 
administration are the following: 

(1) The Federal Government has control of the disabled soldiers 
as they return from the war, and is, therefore, under the immediate 
necessity of providing for them. 

(2) Experience has shown that disabled soldiers for the period of 
their rehabilitation should be returned, as far as possible, to their own 
communities. This geographical distribution can be most easily 
effected by the Federal Government. 

(3) If it be assumed that military control is necessary (see section 
below) during the whole or any portion of the period of rehabilita¬ 
tion, the National Government alone can exercise such control. 

(4) Since the question of public versus private control is inti¬ 
mately bound up with the question of public versus private support, 
any decision of Congress to support vocational rehabilitation with 
public funds implies public control of the work. 

(5) It is inconceivable that any other than the Federal Govern¬ 
ment could undertake the work of training and supplying teachers 
to meet this necessity with the promptness which the emergency 
requires, and on a scale sufficiently comprehensive. 

(6) The National Government is in a position to utilize agencies and 
equipment which private control can not command. Among theso 
may be mentioned the land-grant colleges already cooperating with 
the National Government in the training of farmers, and forts, can¬ 
tonments, and extensive open places already belonging to the National 
Government, readily convertible into sites for the training of large 
numbers of men. The National Government could not turn these 
resources over to the administration of private philanthropy. 

42297°—S. Doc. 166, 65-2-2 


18 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

(7) As regards placement, no agency other than the Federal Gov¬ 
ernment can command the cooperation of every class in the fields of 
commerce, industry, and agriculture, including both employer and 
employee. 

(8) Private control, or private support on any large scale for this 
work, involves an idea repugnant to the American mind—namely, 
that these soldiers are to be wards of charity rather than the recipi¬ 
ents of their just dues from the Government. 

(9) The Government, by every consideration of justice is bound 
to contribute to this work, and since it can not turn over its funds 
to private administration, it must assume control, at least in propor¬ 
tion to its financial support. 

(10) Private control necessarily means private support, and since 
private support may prove inadequate and fail, private control is 
not feasible. 

(11) As a direct result of national control of the work of rehabili¬ 
tating crippled soldiers and sailors, experience of great value to the 
Government in connection with similar work for the victims of 
industry will be gained. 


MILITARY DISCIPLINE. 

Wounded soldiers, being in an abnormal condition psychologically 
and physically, do not in every case realize the necessity for under¬ 
going the immediate sacrifice involved in vocational training, and 
must therefore, for their own best interests, be induced to follow it. 
The maintenance of military discipline in the initial stages of this 
training would be one method of bringing needed pressure to bear. 
Release from such discipline should, however, in general be given at 
the earliest moment when it appears on special consideration of 
individual cases, that its further continuation is not essential to com¬ 
plete rehabilitation in civil employment. 

At the same time it is to be borne in mind that the sudden release 
of men accustomed to military discipline from such control, might 
impose burdens of responsibility upon them at precisely that time 
when they would be unfit to bear them. 

If the best interests of the community demand, for reasons noted, 
the Government will direct, guide, and control the work of rehabili¬ 
tation for a considerable period, at least. Without such control it 
would be difficult for the Government to act effectively, as a sort 
of switchboard connecting the men with industrial life, having pur¬ 
view of all vocational opportmiities throughout the country, and 
directing rehabilitated men into those employments for which there 
is the greatest need. 

It is recognized that a large majority of these men have been 
drafted for the period of the war and that at the termination of the 
war they will, unless additional legislation is enacted, be free to 
leave the Army. For handicapped men who do so leave the Army 
it is clear that some provision for systematic vocational training by 
the Government must be made, and that vocational training at the 
expense of the Federal Government necessarily implies control dur¬ 
ing the period of such training. 

Over crippled and disabled men, returned before the close of 
the war, the Government will still exercise control. These men, 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 19 

at least, should be continued under Government control during phys¬ 
ical rehabilitation. If they are not so retained the Government 
will be in the position of releasing upon the community handicapped 
men drafted for the period of the war without providing for their 
rehabilitation and readjustment to civil life. 

As regards extension of military discipline the correct procedure 
would appear to be release from such discipline upon completion of 
convalescence and continuation of training under civil discipline. 
But this question is one of administrative policy rather than of legis¬ 
lation and may safely be left for determination by such executive 
board or authority as may be instituted to carry on the work. 

The duration of the vocational courses will doubtless be short, 
varying from a few weeks or months to one or two years. Much of 
tliis training might well be on a part-time basis, the man being 
employed in an approved factory or shop and attending school 
under the continuation plan. 

The point at which Government control should be discontinued 
must be determined individually and on the general principle that 
need for the control ends when the hi dividual has been restored as 
nearly as possible to normal physical, mental, and vocational indepen¬ 
dence, and when provision has been made for his securing and holding 
a position. If not completely rehabilitated, adequate provision 
should be made for his further vocational training by some private 
enterprise. 

NATIONAL VERSUS STATE ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL. 

Leaving for separate consideration the development of the under- 
lying principles of cooperation between the Federal Government and 
the States, the broad question of National versus State administra¬ 
tion and control may be briefly presented. To this general question 
the following considerations seem pertinent. 

1. While these men have been drafted from the States in pro¬ 
portion to population, there is no reason to expect that they will be 
disabled in the same proportions. The burden for caring for these 
men should not be apportioned by the accidental incidence of war 
casualties, but should be assumed as a national burden and equitably 
distributed to the States through the National Government. Ob¬ 
viously those States which experience a relatively light burden of 
casualities should not be relieved of their fair share of taxation for the 
work of rehabilitation. 

2. These men having been crippled in the national service, it be¬ 
comes the duty of the National Government to supervise their voca¬ 
tional, just as it assumes the task of their physical, rehabilitation. 

3. State control implies State responsibility for the rehabilitation 
of soldiers, and the National Government can not in the case of the 
States, any more than in the case of private agencies, divest itself 
of its definite responsibilities. 

4. The Smith-Hughes and other acts furnish precedent for the 
Federal Government to contribute money and to fix standards for 
a national system of vocational education. It should be noted, how¬ 
ever, that the scheme of apportionment of Federal money under the 
Smith-Hughes Act would not be equitable in the case of wounded 
soldiers for the reason that such wounded men will not be in propor¬ 
tion to the population of the States. 


20 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

o. In the adjustment of rehabilitated men to industry it may 
develop that citizens of one State may be most advantageously placed 
in some other State. This redistribution can best be carried on by 
the National Government. 

6. Experience shows that the obstacles in the way of getting uni¬ 
form and adequate legislation from the 48 States severally are 
almost insuperable and are always sufficient to occasion great delays. 
Should vocational rehabilitation be put under State control, it is 
highly improbable that all of the States would provide for such control 
within a period of two to three years. Therefore, the period essential 
for rehabilitation, the period of convalescence, and that immediately 
following would have lapsed before adequate provision had been made. 

7. The National Government has larger resources than any State 
government, and with regard to the particular resources needed for 
vocational rehabilitation it is already in position to cooperate with 
a vast number of agencies throughout the country. 

8. Institutions of special character will be required for dealing with 
specific classes, and it might not be possible for a State having a com¬ 
paratively small number of handicapped men to provide the special 
institutions necessary for their most advantageous training. The 
State with a small number of handicapped could not provide for 
these men special institutions and specially trained teachers for voca¬ 
tionally reeducating the blind, the one-legged, the one-armed, the men 
seeking rehabilitation in clerical pursuits, in agriculture, and in each 
of the separate trades. 

Among the resources of the Federal Government which might be 
utilized for this work are the land-grant colleges, army posts, forts, 
and cantonments. 

9. While there is no exact parallel in European Governments for 
the relationship existing between our National Government and the 
several States, nevertheless European experience in the present war 
indicates that this work of rehabilitation must be under national 
control, even when the work is done in cooperation with local govern¬ 
ments, municipal or provincial, or with private agencies. 

10. The pension acts and the war-risk insurance act furnish prece¬ 
dent for the Federal as against State control. 

COOPERATION WITH THE STATES. 

The question of cooperation between the National Government 
and the States does not involve the question of the cost of the work 
in so far as that cost is to be provided out of public funds, with the 
exception, however, that the centralized administration would 
naturally be expected to be cheaper than an administration divided 
among the several States. Whether the money is contributed in 
whole or in part by the State governments or by the National Gov¬ 
ernment, it must be derived from taxation, and the amount raised 
will be determined by the work to be done and not by fiscal agents. 

It is proposed that a census of institutions should immediately be 
undertaken by the Federal Board for Vocational Education, and 
tha,t this census secure information concerning the number of insti¬ 
tutions and the attitude of the State officials. The National Govern¬ 
ment is already taking an occupational census of the drafted men, and 
will be in possession of vocational information concerning them. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 21 

The numbers of those trained in the different vocations will therefore 
be known in advance of the return of the men. 

Inasmuch as under the Smith-Hughes Act the States are rapidly 
developing vocational schools, it would seem wise economy to expand 
and adapt these schools in order to meet the new necessity as well 
as to create new schools specifically designed for the emergency and 
under direct national control. It is suggested that since to accomplish 
this it may be necessary for the States to modify and enlarge their 
vocational education facilities, the Smith-Hughes Act should be 
amended at the earliest moment to that end, in order that it may effect 
that end. 

COOPERATION WITH PRIVATE AGENCIES. 

The basis of cooperation with private agencies should be similar to 
that of cooperation with the States; namely, financial contribution or 
the extension of the resources available in private institutions for the 
effective carrying on of the work. 

Cooperation with private agencies must always carry with it 
national control, and no cooperation involving the surrender of 
national supervision should be contemplated. Such control does not 
necessarily involve supervisory functions over the private institu¬ 
tion, except as is necessarily involved in the control of the men de¬ 
tailed to such institutions during vocational rehabilitation. 

The private agencies should oe regarded as volunteers, and the 
Federal Government, whatever services it may accept, should not 
impose anything upon them. The national scheme should be suf¬ 
ficiently elastic to accept volunteer services whenever the national 
agency may determine that such services will be of value. 

FINANCING THE WORK OF VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION. 

Expenditures made specifically for vocational reeducation may for 
the most part be covered under the following general heads: 

1. Cost of vocational workshops and equipment. 

2. Salaries of vocational teachers, supervisors, and directors. 

3. Support of the men and of their dependents during the period 
of their vocational training. 

As a basis for immediate action some assumption must be made 
regarding the proportion of men requiring vocational training to the 
total number of men returned from overseas unfit for further mili¬ 
tary service. Such an assumption has been developed in estimating 
the number of men to be reeducated. (See Part III. The size of 
the problem.) 

This proportion once determined may be taken as a constant 
factor, subject to revision in the light of actual developments. The 
uncertainty attaching to any estimate of the expenditures involved 
suggests the need of great flexibility in the development of the work. 
Some general fund should be made available under proper safeguards, 
to be drawn upon in such amounts as are required from time to time. 
This fund might be placed in the custody of the President or of some 
board created by Congress. 

In preparing a budget of expenditures for vocational reeducation 
as a whole, a survey should be made of the equipment and service 
provided for vocational reeducation work in other belligerent coun¬ 
tries. An effort should be made to determine so far as possible what 


22 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


specific lines of vocational training should be provided for in advance; 
what methods should be adopted in procuring and training vocational 
experts as teachers; and what expenditures are required to provide 
suitable workshops and equipment. Such a survey should be begun 
immediately. 

Prior to making such a survey, however, general principles of policy 
can be presented, and these general principles provide a clear basis for 
legislative action by Congress involving appropriation of Federal 
money to the support of vocational reeducation, and cooperation 
with such public agencies as States and municipalities, and with 
semipublic and private agencies. 

APPROPRIATION BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. 

(a) Provision for preliminary survey work. —Some provision must 
be made by Congress if funds are not available for this purpose under 
existing legislation, to cover the preliminary survey work, and the 
general organization and administration. This amount will not 
necessarily be very considerable, but should be entirely adequate, 
since undue economy in this preliminary work may mean ultimate 
waste of public money. 

(b) Provision for trie conduct of vocational reeducation work .—This 
appropriation, as has been indicated above, should create a fund 
sufficiently large to cover all possible eventualities of the war, and 
should make this fund available for expenditure as occasion for ex¬ 
penditure develops. 

(c) Provision for support of men and their dependents during the 
period of reeducation. —For vocational training, in so far as it is con¬ 
ducted under discipline a simple provision would be continuation of 
military service pay, together with support of dependents during the 
period of training. Under this provision the men should be reenlisted 
in the service until completion of their vocational reeducation. This 
reenlistment need not involve extension of military discipline through¬ 
out the period of vocational training, but would insure the exercise 
of adequate control and discipline, civil or military, over the men. 

APPROPRIATION BY THE STATES. 

While the Federal Government can not fairly impose upon the 
several States the burden of providing vocational reeducation for 
the disabled soldiers and sailors who were drafted from that State, 
it is not improbable that some of the States will voluntarily under¬ 
take to assume a share of responsibility in this work. 

Under these conditions the question arises as to how far the work 
may be paid for under joint Federal and State funds. 

The general principle must be maintained that adequate provision 
must be made for the training of every man disabled m the military 
service requiring vocational reeducation. 

A consistent policy would seem to involve a clear definition of 
responsibility, as between the States and the Federal Government, 
the field of the Federal Government being defined to embrace com¬ 
plete vocational reeducation and reestablishment of the men in civil 
employment. If in performing this service State services are accepted 
it would seem only equitable that the States rendering such service 
should be completely reimbursed for any expenditures made by them. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OE DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 23 


This policy will not exclude the States from cooperation with, the 
Federal Government, but will, on the contrary, open wide the door 
to such cooperation. 

This policy, further, by relieving the States of a specific financial 
burden, will leave them free to undertake other services in behalf of 
returned soldiers which can not be undertaken by the Federal Gov¬ 
ernment, and it will insure an equitable distribution of the burden 
upon all the States. 

APPROPRIATION BY MUNICIPALITIES. 

In general the principles involved in cooperation between the 
Federal Government and the States are pertinent to cooperation 
with municipalities. 

Municipalities cooperating in this work with the Federal Govern¬ 
ment should be entirely reimbursed by the Federal Government for 
any expenditures made specifically on account of the vocational 
reeducation of returned soldiers and sailors, and should thus be left 
free to undertake such other services in behalf of these men as they 
may elect to do. 

CONTRIBUTIONS BY PRIVATE AND SEMIPUBLIC AGENCIES. 

As regards private and semipublic agencies, such as the Red Cross, 
private foundations, individuals, corporations, trade-unions, fraternal 
organizations, farmers’ unions and granges, hospitals, and schools, 
as in the case of States and municipalities, the general principle 
applies that the Federal Government can not in single cases divest 
itself of a responsibility which it recognizes in general as its own. It 
can not consistently be placed in the position of abandoning some 
men requiring vocational training to the financial support of private 
or semiprivate agencies, while providing Federal support in full for 
other cases. 

In fulfilling its obligation to the disabled soldiers and sailors, 
however, the Federal Government is bound to accept every helpful 
cooperative service proffered by private agencies. It may be an¬ 
ticipated that cooperation on tne part of private agencies will not 
consist chiefly, if in any degree, in rendering financial support. It 
might, indeed, be argued with considerable plausibility that only 
one consideration could justify acceptance of financial aid from 
private sources by the Federal Government, namely, that the Fed¬ 
eral Government might be financially incapable of undertaking the 
whole support of the work under Federal appropriations. Such a 
presumption certainly will not bo permitted by the American people. 

Opportunity for service to returned soldiers and sailors is by no 
means restricted to vocational reeducation. This service is, in fact, 
a special one to be rendered to a comparatively few men. The 
whole field of social rehabilitation and readjustment of the disabled 
men returned, and, at the termination of the war, of the entire body 
of demobilized men returning home, is open to private and semi¬ 
public agencies, and it may safely be assumed that the needs, other 
than those for vocational reeducation, will be sufficient to absorb 
all available resources. 

Foreign practice is not entirely consistent with this principle, but 
the present practice in the belligerent countries has been determined 


24 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

tinder conditions of great emergency which have made difficult, if not 
impossible, the consistent development of any policy. It may be noted, 
further, that traditionally the practice of certain foreign countries is 
quite different from our own as regards cooperation between public 
and private agencies. In considering this cooperation the specific 
character of the several agencies established and the social policies 
under which they operate must be carefully taken into account. 

NEED FOR TRAINING TEACHERS FOR REHABILITATION. 1 

The experience of the United States .will probably correspond 
more closely to that of Canada than to that of the other belligerent 
countries. 

Recent Canadian figures show that 10 per cent of the men sent 
overseas had been returned physically unfit for further military serv¬ 
ice, and that of these 30 per cent were in the hospital at the time of 
the report. The majority of these patients are convalescing, since 
men are not returned until their physical condition permits. On the 
basis of Canadian and of European experience, it would appear that the 
United States may fairly anticipate that per 1,000,000 men overseas 
100,000 will be returned each year unfit for military service, and that 
the number of patients constantly in the hospitals will be from 30,000 
to 50,000. 

The value of occupational therapy in the convalescence of disabled 
soldiers has been demonstrated by the experience of foreign countries 
beyond any possible point of debate. The problem for this country 
is not whether the men shall be given occupational therapy and 
treated along the most progressive lines of medicine; it is rather 
the problem of ascertaining how best medical treatment and occu¬ 
pational therapy may contribute toward the ultimate goal of 
industrial rehabilitation. 

The experience of foreign countries in rehabilitation emphasizes 
the necessity of the recognition of three fundamental principles— 
first, the value of practical occupation; second, the importance of 
trained teachers, and third, the urgency of immediate occupation 
in convalescence. 

It is found that the men respond far better to work of a practical 
type in the curative workshops than to any of the trivial or time¬ 
passing occupations. The positive danger" of the latter has been 
demonstrated in cases where the men have actually been turned 
away from productive occupations by following one of the “semi- 
trades” which are dependent upon charity or upon uncertain and 
fickle markets for support. In Germany there is no waste of time 
on useless occupations. 

“To employ the invalid for any length of time on trivial work 
does not seem suitable. It is much better to employ him at gainful 
v/ork as soon as possible and to arouse in him consciousness that he 
is still able to perform efficient work.” 2 It is claimed that Germany 
uses 85 to 90 per cent of her wounded back of the lines, and that only 
a small proportion of the remainder are not completely self-supporting. 

While the work is intended primarily to be curative for mind 
and body, experience has shown that many men who have acquired 


1 An exhaustive study of the problem of rehabilitation has been prepared by the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education and will appear in Bulletin No. 6. 

2 Dr. Tjoden in a lecture given in Bremen. 



VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 25 

in the convalescent shops mechanical skill, ability to interpret 
blue prints, a knowledge of shop arithmetic and mechanical drawing, 
have actually increased their commercial value in life. In fact, 
European military hospitals have commenced serious vocational 
training in the hospital workshops. In this period vocational 
training is given to the men as therapeutic discipline and should 
be related as far as possible to their future occupation. 

Occupational therapy can only be intrusted to those particularly 
trained for it. Work is prescribed for the patients by the doctors 
just as other prescriptions are given. In order to avoid harmful 
consequences, the work prescription should be carried out only by 
one trained to follow directions intelligently, able to understand 
and correct mental attitudes, trained to note fatigue, and compe¬ 
tent to exercise certain muscles and joints. “ French experience 
has established very clearly that the selection of the right type of 
teacher is vital to the success of any scheme of training * * *. 

The ideal instructor must know his men as well as his trade. He 
must study their peculiarities and be able to vary his methods so 
as to get the best out of each man. The best possible men must 
be secured without regard to cost, and those who fail to develop 
the requisite qualities must be vigorously weeded out.” 1 

The mental attitude of the disabled soldier is such that if a delay 
occurs before he is given an occupation he frequently becomes 
“institutionalized” and unable to aclapt himself to the idea of pro¬ 
ductive work. Experience has amply proved that the ease with 
which men become adjusted and employable is in direct ratio to the 
promptness with which reeducation is begun. 

“ The question is desperately urgent. Habits of idleness are not 
easily shaken off, and if once these men are allowed to sink into 
despondency and apathy they will soon degenerate into chronic 
unemployablcs. * * * Delay means wasted lives.” 1 French 

figures show that only 5 per cent of the men took up training if it 
was delayed until after hospital discharge, whereas 80 per cent con¬ 
tinued training if begun in the hospitals. 

The necessity of providing teachers of occupational therapy is 
imperative. Canada provides four teachers ior every hundred 
convalescing patients, and anticipates increasing the number of 
teachers per hundred patients. 

On an estimate of four teachers for every hundred men this 
country will have to provide 1,200 trained occupational thera¬ 
peutists for every million men overseas. There is at present a very 
limited number of competent occupational therapeutists, and far 
from adequate courses of training, equipment, and hospital facilities 
exist for training more. 

In order to meet this emergency, the Federal Board for Vocational 
Education has made a special study of the problem of training 
teachers for the curative workshop, taking into consideration the 
cooperation which must exist between the medical authorities and 
the vocational officer in directing the patient from the earliest mo¬ 
ment toward an occupation in which his handicap may be reduced 
to the minimum and nis facility developed to the maximum. This 
study is based upon the probable numbers of teachers required, 


. i L. O. Brock, American Journal of Care for Cripples, vol. 4, no. 1. 




26 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

special problems encountered in dealing with war invalids, necessary 
background to carry out the physician's instructions intelligently, 
and qualifications of instructors and courses of teacher training. 

Upon discharge from the hospital. 80 per cent of the men, accord¬ 
ing to Canadian figures, are able to return to their former occupa¬ 
tions. Ten per cent need complete vocational reeducation and 
10 per cent partial vocational reeducation. The difficult problem 
of securing teachers for vocational education is only equaled by the 
scarcity oi occupational therapeutists. 

In addition to the requirements of the regular vocational instruc¬ 
tor, the instructor of the disabled soldier must know those points of 
difference between his soldier pupils and the normal pupils to whom 
he is accustomed. The shop instructor, even more than the instruc¬ 
tor of related or academic subjects, must be highly skilled in his 
trade for the reason that many of the men will have had experience 
in that trade, and unlike the raw youth in vocational classes, they 
will be critical, and unwilling to learn from one not markedly their 
superior. As a rule the boys of vocational education age are eager, 
quick, and teachable, whereas many of the returned soldiers, though 
young enough to have receptive minds, are of maturer age. The 
fact that they have been returned unfit for further military service 
indicates that in some way, either by lessened vitality or permanent 
handicap, they are below par. Moreover, the experience of war has 
been a mentally paralyzing experience, and the instructor must be 
patient and must understand his pupil. In addition to intelligent 
sympathy, the instructor must maintain regularity and meet the 
requirements of the vocational school, for vocational education 
leads directly to employability. The patients do not enter the voca¬ 
tional classes until the medical authorities have discharged them or 
else state that their physical condition will permit a regular course of 
study. 

The best vocational instructors must be selected for training the 
disabled patients, not only because they require the best possible 
instruction, but because the problem of teaching them is particularly 
difficult and important. 

NEED FOR EARLY ENACTMENT OF LEGISLATION. 

The rehabilitation of disabled soldiers and sailors is a task so 
important, so large, so complicated, and, therefore, so difficult, that 
Congress should, at the earliest possible moment, provide by legisla¬ 
tion a clear and definite plan for the organization, administration, 
and support of the work. 

Although the United States has been at war more than half a year, 
no specific appropriation has yet been made by Congress for establish¬ 
ing and operating vocational training for men handicapped by war. 
Indeed, no such appropriation has been made even for the proper 
study and investigation of the many problems involved. 

It is true that section 304 of the war-risk insurance bill (Public, 
No. 9, Sixty-fifth Congress—UL R. 5723), which became a law 
October 6, 1917, apparently places the work of rehabilitation, reedu¬ 
cation, and vocational training for disabled men in the hands of the 
Director of the Bureau of War-Risk Insurance, who, under the 
Treasury Department, has the duty and responsibility of administer¬ 
ing the entire act. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 27 

Section 304 reads as follows: 

That in cases of dismemberment, of injuries to sight or hearing, and of other injuries 
comm i '> causing perm anent disability, the injured person shall lotto* an< b course 
or courses of rehabilitation, reeducation, and vocational training as the United States 
may provide or procure to be provided. Should such course prevent the injured 
person from following substantially gainful occupation while taking same, a form of 
enlistment may be required which shall bring the injured person into the military 
or naval service. Such enlistment shall entitle the person to full pay as during the 
last month of his active service, and his family allowances and allotment as herein¬ 
before provided, in lieu of all other compensation for the time being. 

In case of his willful failure properly to follow such course or so to enlist, payment 
of compensation shall be suspended until such willful failure ceases and no compensa¬ 
tion shall be payable for the intervening period. 

For reasons discussed below this section has remained inoperative. 
Indeed, the section is more a promise of what should he done than a 
workable program for the vocational rehabilitation and the return to 
civil employment of disabled soldiers and sailors. 

Section 304 of the war-risk insurance act makes no appropriation 
to meet the expense of carrying on the course or courses for the 
rehabilitation and vocational training promised by that section. 
All the appropriations are for insurance, compensation, allowances, 
funeral expenses, and similar items; none are for rehabilitation, re¬ 
education, and training. Without additional legislation Congress i3 
placed in the position of having made a promise to enlisted men 
without providing a dollar to carry it out. Outside of a small 
part of the $100,000 appropriated for the administration of the 
war-risk insurance which might possibly be used for section 304 
(though in what way is not clear), the section is meaningless for 
want of funds. This has doubtless caused a delay when every 
consideration demands immediate planning for action. Otherwise 
this great national duty and exigency* will he left to private philan¬ 
thropy and control, a procedure which has met with signal failure 
among the allies. 

Section 304 is buried in an act, every one of whose other important 
sections deals with war-risk insurance. Admittedly it was inserted 
as a promise by Congress that the rehabilitation, reeducation, and 
vocational training of injured soldiers and sailors would be more 
definitely provided for at the ensuing session. Naturally, under 
these circumstances, this very difficult and highly specialized work 
is committed, under the general terms of the act to an organization 
and administration, which, while admirably adapted for war-risk 
insurance—for which it was primarily intended—is inadequate, so far 
as section 304 is concerned, for the proper care, education, and place¬ 
ment in industry of injured men. 

Furthermore, Very grave uncertainty exists from the legal stand¬ 
point as to duties, powers, and relationships between the Treasury 
and the War and Navy Departments in dealing with this problem of 
vocational rehabilitation. On the one hand, the War-Ilisk Insurance 
Bureau of the Treasury Department is charged with the duty of 
administering the compensation and annuities for disabled men, a 
task which involves, of course, dealing with them almost from the 
time they receive their injuries. On the other hand, the Surgeon 


58 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

Generals’ offices of the War and of the Navy Departments have tra¬ 
ditionally dealt with the surgery, the medical care, and the functional 
rehabilitation of injured men. 

While funds in the hands of the Secretary of War under liberal 
appropriations made by Congress have been appropriated for the 
hospital and medical care of wounded men, the use of these funds 
for vocational reeducation has not been specifically granted. There¬ 
fore, if these funds are so used it must be under the broad assumption 
either that vocational rehabilitation is a part of functional rehabilita¬ 
tion or that the wounded man is still enlisted and that this training 
is a part of his discipline as an enlisted man. There seems to have 
been no agreement up to this time at least between the Treasury 
Department, the War Department, and the Navy Department as to 
their respective authority and responsibility under existing legisla¬ 
tion or as to how they can effectively cooperate. Under these cir¬ 
cumstances, every consideration requires the early enactment of 
legislation designed to relieve present uncertainty and to provide 
ample funds for entering with certainty and speed upon the study, 
planning, and execution of a comprehensive scheme for the care, 
rehabilitation, and reemployment of the victims of this war. 

CONFERENCE TO FORMULATE A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN OF 
REHABILITATION. 

Because of the widespread interest and the uncertainty as to the 
final program which Congress will establish, different departments 
and branches of the Government, as well as private organizations, 
have been studying the problem and making tentative plans to meet 
it. To prevent confusion and the development of many separate 
and duplicating efforts the Surgeon General of the Army, at the 
suggestion of the Secretary of War, recently called together in con¬ 
ference representatives from the Departments of the Treasury, War, 
Navy, Interior, and Labor, the Federal Board for Vocational Edu¬ 
cation, the Public Health Service, the United States Employees’ 
Compensation Commission, the Council of National Defense, the 
National Chamber of Commerce, the division for civilian relief of 
the Red Cross, the National Manufacturers’ Association, and the 
American Federation of Labor to give full consideration to the 
problem and to formulate a definite and comprehensive plan which 
would provide a continuous process for the physical and mental 
restoration of disabled soldiers and sailors and their vocational 
rehabilitation and return to civil employment. 

In order to be of the largest assistance, this conference terminated 
its labors by the adoption of a tentative bill embodying the principles 
and policies of which the conference approved. This measure was 
respectfully submitted, through the Surgeon General, to the Secretary 
of War for his consideration, with the recommendation that after it 
had passed through the hands of the solicitors of the departments con¬ 
cerned for the correction of such technical defects as the proper 
description of all the beneficiaries to be reached by the measure, 
the same should be presented to the Congress for its consideration. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 29 


LEGISLATION MUST BE BROAD AND FLEXIBLE. 

No more difficult problem was ever presented to a people than the 
sacred task of restoring the victims of this great conflict to normal 
life and happy, self-dependent employment. 

It is not known how long the war will last; how many soldiers 
will be sent to Europe; how many will be injured; how many 
will die; how many will return totally disabled; how many will be 
subjects for vocational rehabilitation; what means of employment 
will be open and to what extent; what the character of injuries will 
be; what forms of employment will be advisable for men returning, 
as is usual, with a complication of disabilities; how they may be best 
trained; where and how they should be placed; what will be the 
economic conditions during and after the war; what Government and 
civic employments will be open; what cooperation can be secured 
from the States, employers, organizations of employers, private 
foundations, institutions, and philanthropic foundations; what will 
be the cost of carrying on the work; how this cost is to be distributed 
during the years the work is being carried on; and what social and 
economic adjustment must be faced. 

Any legislation dealing with this question must be broad and flexi¬ 
ble. Experience of foreign governments has shown not only that 
the support and control of rehabilitation must be in the hands of the 
National Government, but that the work itself must be done by a 
national board equipped with ample funds and having broad dis¬ 
cretionary powers, designed to meet the rapidly changing conditions 
in the conduct of the war and to cover the growing experience of the 
country in dealing with the reeducation and placement of handicapped 
men. 

This national board should be a board already in existence, desig¬ 
nated because of its experience and facilities for the administration 
of vocational training and because of the representative character 
of its membership. If a new board should be created by Congress 
for the purpose, all existing facilities for the study and administra¬ 
tion of vocational education now possessed by the National Gov¬ 
ernment should be recognized and utilized so as to avoid confusion, 
overlap and duplication of effort, and needless expense. 




PART II. 

FOREIGN LEGISLATION AND EXPERIENCE. 

Coordination and Centralization of Authority. 

In each of the belligerent countries experience has demonstrated 
that the process of returning men incapacitated for further military 
service to civil employment must be a continuous process, initiated 
in the hospital and continued without break through the various 
stages of convalescence, vocational reeducation, placement, and pro¬ 
ductive employment in the workshop. 

Any break in this process may, in individual cases, mean failure 
and permanent dependency, and is certain to mean in general in¬ 
creased expenditure and effort. Once the disabled soldier or sailor 
has drifted into unskilled casual employment, or into a state of de¬ 
pendency, his economic rehabilitation becomes exceedingly difficult. 

Each belligerent has accordingly made legislative provision which 
insures the immediate and direct return of invalided soldiers and 
sailors, either to their old employment, if they are capable of under¬ 
taking it, or to some new employment for which their handicap does 
not constitute a prohibitive bar. Under this legislation such voca¬ 
tional training in the old or in a new employment is given each man 
as he may require. This training is given in hospital workshops 
during convalescence, in classes and schools specially organized for 
disabled soldiers and sailors, in technical, trade and agricultural 
schools, and in factories and workshops under special agreements 
with employers. 

A great variety of agencies, public and private, cooperate in this 
work of reestablishing men in civil emplovment under fair guarantees 
as regards wages, hours, and every condition of work. 

During the first months of the war, however, each of these agencies 
worked more or less independently of the others, rendering such 
service in behalf of disabled men as it was capable of rendering in 
the face of the sudden emergency imposed by the war, and these 
early efforts were necessarily uncoordinated and disparate. 

The development in each country during the war may be summed 
up in the words coordination of effort under a central agency of 
national administration embracing a great diversity of agencies and 
resources. 

In England, for example, the agency of centralized authority is 
the special grants committee under the minister of pensions; in 
France, it is the 1 ‘ office national des mu tiles et reformes de la guerre ’ ’; 
in Italy, the national committee for the protection and help of men 
invalided in the war; and in Canada, tne military hospitals com¬ 
mission. 

Under the general direction of these national agencies of control a 
great diversity of effort has been coordinated, and every available 

31 


32 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

resource, public and private, is effectively utilized in a general scheme 
of cooperation administratively financed by the central government, 
which also provides such funds as are required for maintenance of 
vocational training, and for support of the men and of their depend¬ 
ents during the period of their training. 

In the following sections, based upon such official and unofficial 
sources of information as are available, brief accounts are given of 
the legislation which has been enacted in the several belligerent 
countries, and of the various agencies which have been developed 
and coordinated under this legislation. 

England. 

NAVAL AND MILITARY WAR-PENSIONS ACT OF 1915. 

The naval and military war pensions act of November, 1915, was 
passed by Parliament following recommendations by a committee 
under the chairmanship of vSir George Murray. 

This committee, which had been previously appointed to investi¬ 
gate the best methods of caring for disabled men discharged from 
the army, had in its report recommended that the work of caring for 
such men be devolved upon a central authority. 

In the war pensions act of 1915, “the State for the first time recog¬ 
nized its responsibility for the treatment and care of disabled soldiers 
after their discharge from the Army.” 1 In England the royal patri¬ 
otic fund corporation, dating back to the Crimean War, had admin¬ 
istered in trust charitable funds for disabled soldiers, and soldiers’ 
widows and orphans, but it seems to have become apparent, at the 
very outset of the present war in England, as in France, that private 
funds would prove inadequate for this work. The war pension act of 
1915 recognized the necessity for State support in the discharge of 
an obligation resting clearly upon the whole community. 

By the terms of the act the royal patriotic fund corporation was 
constituted a statutory committee consisting of 27 members. This 
committee was given authority “to make provision for the care of 
disabled officers and men after they have left the service, including 
provision for their health, training, and employment.” 

Vocational reeducation and placement of disabled men after dis¬ 
charge from the Army is thus generally specified as falling within the 
scope of the functions of the statutory committee, which is left en¬ 
tirely free to develop the work in its discretion and according to the 
resources available. 

In the provisions of this act is found “the germ of the State system 
of training to enable those who have suffered directly through the 
war to resume their civil occupation.” It was pointed out, however, 
that the duty of the committee “was not so much to supplant private 
institutions for the care and training of the disabled as to coordinate 
them, and only when necessary to supplement them,” utilizing to 
the full all existing organizations of the State, such as, for example, 
“the education department, the health insurance commission, and 
the labor exchange.”. The statutory committee is described as “more 
a coordinate and advisory body than an administrative department.” 


1 Capt. Basil Williams, Care of crippled and blinded soldiers in Great Britain; article in Recalled to Life, 
reprinted in American Journal of Care for Cripples of September, 1917, p. 97. 



VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 33 


The central committee was instructed by tho act to establish local 
committees, one from each county or county borough, and one for 
each borough and urban district of not less than 50,000 population, 
whose council so desired, and one for every other borough or urban 
district for which the statutory committee," on the application of the 
local council, considered it desirable that a separate* local com¬ 
mittee should bo established. 

These local committees were to perform their functions under 
schemes * 1 2 3 4 5 * 7 * * 10 11 to be adopted by, and so far as seemed advisable, devised 
by the local councils and approved by the statutory committee. 
Such schemes might in any given case provide for tho" division of a 
county into districts and the appointment of a subcommittee in each 
district. Thus considerable responsibility and discretion was to be 
delegated to the local committees. 

The members of the central committee were appointed by the 
Crown, the royal patriotic fund corporation, the war office, the 
Admiralty, and other Government offices, and the Soldiers’ and Sail¬ 
ors’ Families’ Association. The central committee itself was in¬ 
structed to appoint a subcommittee, which should include in its 
membership representatives of employers and of labor, and local 
district committees might appoint similar subcommittees. 

The central committee and the local committees were authorized 
to solicit and receive contributions from the public, and Parliament 
voted to the central committee £ 1,000,000. Funds subscribed locally 
might be expended by the local committee, which might refer in¬ 
dividual cases to the central committee for assistance to be given out 
of funds at the disposal of this committee. 

It was provided that administrative expenses of local committees 
and subcommittees shall be defrayed by the council of the county or 
borough. 

The following brief account of developments under this act is 
taken largch’ from the article cited above by Capt. Basil Williams. 

WORK OF THE STATUTORY COMMITTEE. 

The statutory committee investigated the work being done by tho 
education department, the board of trade’s employment bureau, the 
health insurance commissions, the war office, and the Admiralty, 
and by a large number of voluntary private agencies, such as the 
Red Cross, and the St. John’s ambulance societies. 

It undertook to guide the extension of activities of these several 
agencies so as to provide needed services and avoid misdirection and 
waste of resources. 


1 Tho following outline of a scheme was submitted under the naval and military war pensions act by tho 
statutory committee for adoption by local committees: 

Scheme framed by the-County Council for the constitution of a local committee for the county of 

-, excluding the royal parliamentary or police burghs of-. 

1. Constitution of local committee. Stated number to be women, representatives of labor, and members 
of tho Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Families’ Association/ or the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Help Society, or any 
other association doing work of this kind. 

2. Tho members to be appointed by county council. 

3. Term of office to be three years. 

4. Regulation regarding absence of members. 

5. Regulation regarding casual vacancies. 

fi. Settlement of differences to be by statutory committee. 

7. Vacancies not to invalidate proceedings. 

s. Chairman and vice chairman to be appointed by the committee. 

«>. Timo and place of meetings to be held at. stated intervals. 

10. Procedure to be regulated by committee. 

11. Duration of scheme to be in power of tho council with consent of the statutory committee. 

Schemes for boroughs have practically the same lorm. 

42207°—S. Doc. 166, 65—2-3 






34 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


It undertook also to encourage the institution of such new agencies 
as were required, u thence to evolve a coordinated system which 
would insure that every case of disablement should be able to obtain 
adequate treatment, training, and employment, if possible within 
convenient distance of a man’s home.” 

The statutory committee had power to pay allowances to men 
during the period of their vocational training, and to pay fees 
charged for such training in institutions giving it, all this on the 
basis of consideration of individual cases. 

The following extracts are from regulations and instructions 
published by the statutory committee: 

TEMPORARY ALLOWANCE. 

In the case of a soldier or sailor discharged as disabled in consequence of the present 
war, where the local committee are satisfied that the man is either entitled to a dis¬ 
ability pension from the State or would be recommended for a special allowance of a 
continuing nature from the statutory committee, and where, in the opinion of the local 
special subcommittee, it would be advisable for such sailor or soldier to receive train¬ 
ing in a technical institute, polytechnic or similar institution before using his earn¬ 
ing capacity, the local committee may pay the fees charged in respect of such tech¬ 
nical training to an institution maintained or aided by a local authority or other 
recognized place of training approved by the statutory committee for this purpose, 
and may make a temporary allowance to the disabled man during the period of his 
training sufficient to make up his income including State pension or State temporary 
allowance and other income (if any). 

In the case of a single man to not exceeding 25s. a week. 

In case of a married man living at home, to 25s. a week, together with 2s Gd. for 
each child. 

Or, if more favorable to the man, a temporary allowance of a sum in addition to his 
income equivalent to the loss, owing to his entry into training, or actual earnings or 
earning capacity, assumed for the purpose of the State pension or any supplementary 
pension, whichever be greater. And where such training necessitates a married man 
or a single man with dependents living away from home, a temporary allowance 
sufficient to make up his income, including State pension or State temporary allow¬ 
ance and other income (if any), to not exceeding 25s. a week for the man himself, 
together with an amount for his wife or dependents (a) where such training commences 
before the State separation allowance ceases equal to such allowance including allot¬ 
ment, plus any supplementary separation allowance receive'd by the wife or depen¬ 
dents under the Regulations or any Treasury grant; or (6) where such training com¬ 
mences after the cessation of the State separation allowance sufficient to make up for 
the loss owing to his entry into training, or actual earnings or earning capacity assumed 
for the purpose of the State pension or any supplementary pension, whichever be 
greater, less such amount as may be saved in respect of the man’s keep. Any part of 
the allowance in such eases may, by arrangement with the man, be paid to his wife 
or dependents or to any hostel or institution where he is maintained. 

Provided , That any wages paid to the man for service rendered during the regular 
hours of training or instruction shall be regarded as “other income” and deducted 
from the allowance otherwise payable under this regulation. 

Any scheme for training must be sanctioned by the statutory committee before 
any allowance is made thereunder, and no allowance for training shall be paid to a 
man for more than 26 weeks without the like sanction. 

****** * 

Local committees will, at the same time, recognize that there are other ways of 
assisting a case than by the grant or continuance of a supplementary pension or special 
allowance. * * * In the case of disabled men special provision can be made 
under the act for their health, training, and employment. 

******* 

In cases where sailors or soldiers are discharged partially disabled, they receive 
pensions calculated on the proportion of the man’s earning capacity which is assumed 
to have been destroyed. Earning capacity for this purpose is taken at the flat rate of 
25s., and the weekly pension awarded is a proportion of 25s., according to the degree 
of incapacity. The same proportion is applied to the allowance of 2s. 6d. for each 
child. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 35 


It ia recognized that the obligations of the community, to men whose health and 
earning powers have been impaired by their service, are not satisfied merely by the 
grant of pension but that they are entitled to such training or continued treatment 
as will restore to them, so far as possible, their normal health and earning powers. 

It is hoped that men will be ready to take advantage of the arrangements made by 
local committees, with the approval of the statutory committee, for their training anil 
treatment, but it is probable that it may be difficult, in many cases, particularly of 
men of mature age, to persuade them to do so. The aim of the statutory committee 
in framing regulation 12 has, therefore, been to provide for adequate financial assist¬ 
ance for those men who are willing to undergo training or treatment, and the alter¬ 
natives in the regulation are inserted in order tliat in no case shall a man, while being 
trained or under treatment, be in a worse financial position than if he had remained 
at home. 

In the case of a man who undergoes training, and is able to live at home during such 
training, subhead (a) authorizes the local committee to make up his income to not 
exceeding 25s. a week in the case of a single man, and to not exceeding 25s. plus 2s. 6d. 
a week for each child if he is married, or if more favorable to the man, they may grant 
him an allowance not exceeding— 

(а) The amount of his earnings immediately prior to his training; or 

(б) The amount which the State or the statutory committee assumed that he was 
capable of earning for the purpose of assessing State pension or supplementary pension, 
respectively. 

The same provisions will apply to a single man without dependents whose training 
necessitates his living away from home, but a single man with aependents, or a married 
man may be granted, in such circumstances, a temporary allowance sufficient to make 
up his income, including State pension or temporary allowance and any other income, 
to not exceeding 25s. by way of maintenance for himself, together with— 

(c) The amount of State separation allowance, allotment, and any supplementary 
separation allowance from the statutory committee or grant from the military service 
(civil liabilities) committee received by his wife or dependents during his service; or 

( d) The amount of the loss owing to his entry into training as set out under (a) or 
(6) above less the amount of the saving resulting from his absence. 

Provided , That an allowance on basis (c) must only be applied where a man enters 
upon his training before cessation of State separation allowance. 

In April, 1917, the war pensions and statutory committee issued 
a circular of instruction declaring that when a local special sub¬ 
committee had decided that it would be advisable for a disabled 
soldier or sailor to undergo training or treatment, and the training 
or treatment can not be entered upon at once on account of want 
of accommodations in a suitable institution or for other exceptional 
circumstances, the local committee may apply regulation 12 giv¬ 
ing temporary allowance on the same basis as for a man receiving 
training or treatment. 1 


HOSPITAL DISCHARGES. 

A large proportion of the men discharged from the military hos¬ 
pitals aro fit to resume their military service and return to the army. 
Statistics for one hospital covering discharges for one year showod 
that out of 1,350 orthopedic cases—that is to say, out oi 1,350 cases 
involving “some form of disability”—997 were returned to the 
army, leaving only 353 cases discharged as permanently unfit for 
further military service. These latter cases come immediately under 
care of the local committees for further treatment, vocational train¬ 
ing, and placement in a wage-earning employment. 

An interval of threo weeks intervenes between the time when the 
man's hospital treatment is regarded as complete and his discharge 
;from the hospital. 


i Circular No. 39, dated Apr.28.1917.entitled “Additional instruction to Part II, regulation 12." 





36 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

In this interval the man is interviewed by a member of the local 
committee of the community in which the hospital is located, and all 
particulars of his case are taken clown, including previous occupation 
and occupational preferences. 

These particulars are forwarded to the local committee of the 
man’s homo community. It then becomes the duty of the homo con> 
mittee to take the initiative in providing for the man on his discharge 
from the hospital and return to his domicile. 

In this three-weeks interval, also a “treatment card” is fdled out 
by the medical officer in charge of the hospital, specifying further 
curative treatment recommended. This card is forwarded to the 
home local committee and a copy is given to the man himself. 

PROVISION FOR REEDUCATION. 

Every effort is made to inform the man—as, for example, by 
posters displayed in the hospital wards, stations, and public places— 
of opportunities open to him for securing further treatment, and 
vocational training. 

At many of the orthopedic hospitals training classes for men 
under treatment have been established by technical institutes 
in such lines as typewriting, woodworking, leather embossing, metal 
lathe work, telegraphy, cinema operation, cobbling, painting, and 
gardening. 

In other cases, classes are given in neighboring institutes in such 
lines as bakery and confectionery, electrical switchboard work, 
bootmaking and repairing, leather work, agriculture, and motor 
plowing, engineering, tinsmithing, and coppersmithing. 

In some cases private employers offer to give disabled men an 
apprenticeship in their workshops. 1 

The ministry of munitions has opened its advanced courses in 
toolmaking, tool setting, gauge making, and other skilled work to 
qualified disabled men recommended by local committees. 

In some cases men are placed on private farms for training, or 
entered in a course at an agricultural college. 

MTNISTRY-OF-PENSIONS ACT. 

The general administration of this work has been modified by two 
acts passed since the war pensions act of 1915, namely, the ministry- 
of-pensions act of 1916, and the naval and military war-pensions 
act of 1917. 

The act of 1916, estabfishing the ministry of pensions, brought 
the statutory committee and the local committees under control 
of the new minister of pensions, and provided that thereafter all 
the powers and duties of these committees should be exercised in 
accordance with the instructions of this official. 


’ The National Leather Goods Manufacturers’ Association offered to train partly disabled men in light 
leather work. Messrs. Worral & Co., of Birmingham, sent members of their staff to teach leather work 
to Englishmen in Switzerland. 

Messrs. Abdulla & Co. (Ltd.) sent an instructor to the Shepherds Bush Orthopedic Hospital to teach 
the patients the art of rolling cigarettes. 

An English firm is training disabled men to make parts of fire extinguishers. 

A Scottish firm oJ manufacturers stated that they had openings in a beetling mill for men suffering of 
deafness. 



VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 37 


NAVAL AND MILITARY WAR-PENSIONS ACT OF 1017. 

Oa April 19, 1917, the secretary of the statutory committee wrote 
letters to the prime minister and to the minister of pensions, inform¬ 
ing these officials that the statutory committee had come to the 
conclusion that in the public interest, and also in that of those for 
whose benefit the statutory committee was constituted, it was 
desirable that tho committee’s functions should be transferred to 
the minister of pensions. It was explained that after considering 
its present position, and since the ministry of pensions had been 
established, a resolution to the following effect was passed on tho 
19th of April: 

That in the opinion of the statutory committee the time has arrived when their 
functions under the naval and military war pensions, etc., act, 1915, should, subject 
to the necessary modifications, be transferred to the minister of pensions. 

The committee has done its best to carry out its functions under, 
schemes instituted by it. Three hundred local committees have 
been established and they have done much work with regard to 
arrangements for the treatment, training, and employment of dis¬ 
abled men. 

The formation of the ministry of pensions, placing the powers 
and duties of the committee under tne minister of pensions, has 
altered its position. There is a cordial feeling between tne committee 
and the ministry. It is thought to be impracticable, however, for 
the committee and the minister to deal with the same matters. 
It is considered that there should be undivided responsibility and 
that there should be only one central authority to which local com¬ 
mittees should look for guidance and control. Legislation to that 
effect is- urged. The experience gained by the members of the 
committee was freely placed at the disposal of the minister of pensions. 

Commenting on this letter and its recommendations Cvril Jackson, 
in the War Pensions Gazette of June, 1917, made the following 
statements: 

The statutory committee was a composite body including members 
of both Houses of Parliament, representatives of Government depart¬ 
ments and of labor, women, and other persons closely associated 
with the voluntary agencies who had previously assisted the soldiers 
and sailors and their families. The special disablements subcom¬ 
mittee did much to prepare the ground and to solve the difficult prob¬ 
lem of affording assistance to disabled men. They established 
advisory trade boards and wage boards. They organized the local 
committees upon whom the whole success of the act depended. 
On these committees a definite proportion were representatives of 
labor; of the old voluntary associations and women, usually one- 
fifth for each class. It was their duty to prepare the schemes and 
to appoint the actual personnel. 

The local committees have proved themselves effective. The 
general lines of training and treatment of the disabled men are 
such that they will form a solid foundation for any work in the 
future. 

In accordance with these recommendations, the naval and mili¬ 
tary war-pensions act, passed August 21, 1917, dissolved the statu¬ 
tory committee and transferred its powers and functions with 
regard to the training of soldiers and sailors to the minister of pen- 


38 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


sions, who was instructed to constitute a committee of not more 
than 12 members, to be known as the special grants committee, with 
the duty of assisting him hi performing the duties imposed upon 
him by the act. It was provided in the act, however, that nothing 
therein should affect any scheme, regulation, order or grant made 
by the statutory committee, but that all such schemes, regulations, 
and orders should, until altered or revoked by the minister of pen¬ 
sions or by the special grants committee, with the approval of the 
minister of pensions, continue in force, the ministry or the special 
grants committee being substituted in each instance for the statu¬ 
tory committee. 

REGULATIONS FOR TRAINING DISABLED MEN. 

The minister of pensions has issued a pamphlet entitled “Instruc¬ 
tions and Notes on the Treatment and Training of Disabled Men, 
1917.” This pamphlet deals with the medical treatment as well 
as with the training of men. Some provisions relating to training 
are given below: 

Sec. 19. Training shall include any form of training (other than orthopedic manual 
training * * *) the conditions of which may be approved by the minister of pen¬ 
sions. 

Sec. 20. The following forms of training are approved: 

(1) Training in any agricultural college, farm colony, or other institution estab¬ 
lished by the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. 

(2) Training for individual men (not exceeding five at anytime in any single indus¬ 
try) in any workshop or factory subject to the general conditions laid down in sched¬ 
ule 4 (seebelow), or such conditions as may hereafter be approved. 

(3) Training given in accordance with any scheme approved by the war pensions 
statutory committee before the issue of these instructions. 

Sec. 23. Training shall not conflict with interest of employers and employed in 
any trade. The minister of pensions, after consultation with minister of* labor, may 
issue instructions as to conditions to be observed. 

Sec. 25. The local committee shall decide as to the training to be offered to and 
provided for disabled men, and in so deciding the local committee shall consider in 
addition to the man’s own choice of occupation— 

(a) His previous occupation. 

(b) The suitability of the occupation to the man’s age, disability, and physical 
condition. 

(c) The recommendation, if any, as to training, which may be indicated on the 
notification of award of pension or in any report of a hospital visitor. 

(d) The opportunities for.reaching a permanent livelihood in the occupation. 

Sec. 28. The local committee, if satisfied that man is not taking full advantage of 

training, may stop training and payment of allowance. 

Schedule 3 of the pamphlet specified conditions under which train¬ 
ing may be given in technical or other institutions. Such training, 
at the expense of the minister of pensions, must be approved by local 
education authority; only ordinary fees may be paid for regular 
courses; and for special courses instituted for disabled men fees rep¬ 
resenting only additional expenses necessitated by the institution, 
not exceeding 7s. fid. per head per week, may be paid. It is further 
specified that the joint committee and trade associations must be 
consulted; that reasonable certainty of employment must be assured; 
that the period of training shall not exceed six months, unless 
conditions of trade, etc., satisfy the minister of pensions that a longer 
period is necessary. Finally it is provided that maimed men shall 
not be required to live away from home, except with the sanction 
of the minister of pensions, and that in such cases there must be 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 39 


reasonable certainty that a position will be secured at the home 
town, or that the man will be willing to move to a place where a 
position may be secured. 

Schedule 4 relates to training in workshops or factories of private 
employers or public companies. It is specified that employers must 
give definite instruction to the men, and make reports on progress; 
that adequate training must be given, together with promise of 
permanent employment and fair wages; that the employers must 
teach the man enough to insure his employment; that no fees shall 
be paid without the sanction of the minister of pensions; that the 
local committee shall have the right of withdrawal; that the employer 
shall pay wages equal to the net value of the work done by the man in 
training, and that the allowance to the man from the committee shall 
be reduced by this amount; that the scheme shall be approved by the 
local trade association; and that the period of training shall not exceed 
four months unless conditions satisfy the minister of pensions that a 
longer period is necessary. 

The pamphlet states that each local committee must feel respon¬ 
sible for all men in its district—not alone for those who present 
themselves to the committee. The local committee is furnished with 
informa tion by the military hospital from which the man is discharged, 
the minister of pensions granting pension or gratuity, the military 
hospital white card indicating treatment when necessary, and the 
hospital visitor reporting on the man’s suitability for training. 

EMPLOYMENT. 

Employment of men released from military service is under the 
direction of the special grants committee of the ministry of pensions 
working in close collaboration with the employment department of 
the ministry of labor. 

England anticipated difficulty with the labor unions. The unions 
have fought for 50 years for the minimum wage and other rights. 
After the first patriotic impulse had worn away, and the liquidation of 
labor began, labor unrest became apparent, in consequence of changed 
conchtions, involving long hours, increased wages, and profit making by 
employers. It became necessary to pass the first munitions act, and 
it has since been necessary for the Government to regulate wages. 
The unions have given up many of their rights on the condition that 
they be returned at the close of the war. The employing of the 
disabled soldier adds to the complications and calls for careful wage 
adjustment. 

TRADE ADVISORY COMMITTEES. 

In order intelligently to achieve the return of disabled soldiers and 
sailors to civil employment and with the least possible friction 
between capital and labor, trade advisory committees have been 
formed in the different trades for regulating the training and employ¬ 
ing^ of such men. 

The trade advisory committee is expected to give advice with 
reference to character and duration of training, and the number of 
men to be trained in the particular trade. 1 


i Trade advisory committees have been formed for the following trades: Cane willow, building, furniture, 
engineering and shipbuilding, tailoring, boot and shoo repairing, boot and shoe manufacture, gold,silver, 
and jewelry, brush making, printing and kindred trades, paper, paper goods, cinematograph, electricity 
and substations, and mechanical dentistry. Such committees have been proposed for the electrical 
industry, the textile trades, and coal mining. 




40 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

The membership of each trade advisory committee is composed as 
follows: 

(1) A chairman, appointed by the ministry of labor if not agreed 
upon by the committee. 

(2) An equal number of representatives of employers and of 
workmen. 

A representative of the special grants committee, and a repre¬ 
sentative of the employment department of the ministry of labor 
attend as consultants. 

The duties of these committees are: 

(1) To advise on all questions relative to reinstatement of disabled 
former employees. 

(2) To study the possibility of permanent employment of those 
not previously in trade. 

(3) To report on plans of training for the disabled in technical 
schools or factories, and as to suitable centers for such training. 

(4) To advise with regard to rate of wages to be paid to disabled 
employed in the trade. 

ADVISORY WAGES BOARDS. 

In addition to the trade advisory committees, the ministry of 
labor has set up advisory wages boards in the principal trades. The 
functions of these two sorts of committees are quite different. 

The trade advisory committees deal with national industries and 
local committees are expected to investigate local and special 
industries. 

The advisory wages boards deal with rates of wages for disabled 
men, and furnish authoritative opinion on the rate of wages which 
each disabled man should have in relation to his physical handicap, 
the impairment of his efficiency, the current local rate of wages, and 
any other factors which must be taken into account. 

Each board consists of a permanent chairman appointed by the 
ministry of labor, and a representative of employers and workmen, 
with not more than three members of the local war pensions com¬ 
mittee who are assessors without the right to vote. The clerk of 
the board is an officer of the ministry of labor. Representatives hold 
office for a period of not less than 12 months, and the length of service 
is determined by the ministry of labor. 

Advice with reference to a man’s earning capacity is given to any 
employer or workman or to the local war pensions committee or to 
the secretary of the local war pensions committee with reference to 
the wage of any workman engaged upon a specific work. In giving 
advice pensions are not to be considered. 

The chairman of the board is usually the chairman of the local 
court of references. (Pt. 11 of the national insurance act, 1911.) 

The board can not enforce its decisions. Its opinion, however, 
is expected to be final. 

INQUIRY INTO TRADES. 

England has started a systematic inquiry into trades which will 
be suitable for the disabled. Inquiry blanks and schedules to secure 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 41 

all information desired relativo to occupations, processes, wages, 
conditions, etc., are to be filled by— 

1. Inspectors of technical schools of the board of education. 

2. Home office factory inspectors. 

o. Officials of the employment department. 

4. Selected manufacturers or persons having a detailed knowledge 
of the trade. 

. I 11 order to procure data showing the exact nature of each process 
m relation to the disabled, a schedule is filled for each separate 
process, not for a trade as a whole. Processes are not investigated 
which are known to be too hard or too unhealthy; or which can be 
learned only by beginning as a boy; or which are performed by 
women under normal labor conditions, or by young people; or in 
cases where the trade is known to be declining, or seasonal, or to 
yield under normal conditions a low wage. 

The purpose of the inquiry is to find permanent employment 
for the disabled and to avoid the danger oi men taking temporary 
positions under present abnormal labor conditions. 

The corps of commissionaires (headquarters London, branches in 
largo cities) is the largest organization dealing with discharged ex- 
service men not wishing to take up a skilled trade. All men dis¬ 
charged for wounds who have served in regular forces or auxiliary 
forces who qualify in health, physique, and education are eligible. 
Commissionaires are engaged by employers as watchmen, clerks, 
time and gate keepers, messengers, gymnastic and drill instructors, 
grooms, boatmen, and porters. 

The employment bureaus in connection with hospitals place men 
as chauffeurs, garage attendants, assistant electricians, elevator 
operators, repair carpenters on estates, and in other employments. 
Engineering and chemical industries need men of technical training 
and there is opportunity of employment for the men in stores, 
hotels, and shops. 

The local committees are furthering employment of the men in 
every possible way. 1 

Upon discharge the address of the man is sent to the employment 
exchange in the district to which lie is to go. 

The further duties of the local committee are briefly indicated in 
the following paragraph, quoted from Capt. Williams’s article, cited 
above: 

After the disabled man's training is completed the local committee is responsible 
for seeing that he obtains the employment for which he is fitted. In many cases 
employment follows naturally upon training; employers who take disabled men as 
apprentices, farmers who train them for agriculture, the ministry of munitions which 
gives them technical instruction, will generally be able to find them work when the 
training is completed. In many cases a man has had his job reserved for him by his 
former "employer, or he may find no difficulty in placing himself, owing to his former 
connections. But there are many other cases where a search for employment has to 
he made. Then the committee will consult the trade panel already mentioned or 
see that the labor-exchange officials do their best to find suitable work. Happily 
there is a natural disposition among employers to help the disabled as much as they 
ran; among all the demands for men made on the labor exchanges by employers 
between May, 1915, and December, 1910, it was stipulated in no less than 2-1,035 
cases that discharged soldiers and sailors should he given the preference.. From other 
returns ror the same period it is clear that hardly any discharged soldiers who had 
app’ied through labor exchanges had no work found for them. 


i From May, 1915. to July 13,1917, there were 127,300 registrations and 59,400 disabled men placed. At 
that time there were about 2,SCO men waiting for employment. 




42 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OE DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS* 

France. 

EARLY EFFORTS FOR REEDUCATION. 

In France—as in Belgium and Italy, but in contrast to the system 
in England—training of disabled men is as far as possible compulsory, 
and in France and Italy such training ceases when the man is dis¬ 
charged from the army or navy. In some cases, however, difficulty 
has been experienced in forcing men to take up courses in profes¬ 
sional reeducation, except such as are prescribed in the hospital 
workshop. 

It is stated that methods in France “have not yet reached a final 
form,” a statement which is undoubtedly true also of the methods 
which have been developed in other belligerent countries. Neverthe¬ 
less, in France considerable progress has been made in the develop¬ 
ment of a central agency of coordination in the work of reeducation 
and placement of disabled men. 

Very early in the war public and private agencies undertook to 
provide training for disabled men, the efforts made to give such 
training being necessarily, under the conditions, in the nature of 
spontaneous uncoordinated reactions to a tremendous and unprovided- 
for emergency. Within the first few weeks of the war thousands of 
men were wounded and crippled in the fierce campaign to stop the 
onrush of invaders. These men, unfit for further military service, 
and in many cases unfit without special training to take up any 
sort of civil employment, were thrown back upon the community, 
which, while recognizing its obligation to provide for them, found 
itself quite unprepared for the task. 

France was thus under the immediate necessity of doing the work, 
without planning how best to do it, and it may be observed that 
while France has been developing her methods of administration, 
she has been teaching the art of rehabilitation of disabled men to 
the world, especially, it should perhaps be added, the art of func¬ 
tional and orthopedic rehabilitation, rather than of vocational 
reeducation. 

The necessities for and the advantages of vocational reeducation 
are, however, fully recognized in France, although it is admitted 
that many men who might with advantage to themselves have 
undertaken a course of vocational reeducation have failed or refused 
to undertake such a course. In a word, the system of compulsory 
training seems to have been only partially successful. 

Private agencies and societies, muncipalities, provincial govern¬ 
ments, and the various departments of the Central Government 
reacted directly and more or less independently to the conditions 
which had suddenly developed. Definition of function and co¬ 
ordination of activities among these diverse agencies is not yet 
complete. 

The first school for training wounded and crippled men was estab¬ 
lished by the municipality of Lyon in December, 1914. This school 
provided accommodations for the training of 200 men in various 
employments. The minister of war paid the school a subsidy of 
3.50 francs a day per pupil. Other municipalities established 
similar schools. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 43 


I, ruler the department of commerce courses were organized in 
technical schools and, under the department of agriculture, in 
agricultural schools. The department of interior established large 
training schools especially for reeducation of soldiers and sailors. 
Disabled men were trained not only for employment, but as teachers 
to train other disabled men, on the principle that no one better than 
a inutile can train a mu til A * 1 

Utilization of all available resources, public and private, character¬ 
izes all the work of caring for disabled men in France from the time 
they enter the hospitals until they are reestablished in some wage- 
earning employment. All hospitals for active medical and surgical 
treatment are under the general control of the service de saute of 
the war department. Some of these hospitals have been established 
and are supported by private individuals or societies, such as the 
French Red Cross; some have been established by civilian and some 
by military authority. Patients in hospitals are given such work as 
they can do, as a means of hastening their convalescence, and in 
many hospitals materials, instruments, and instruction are provided 
by private societies. One society undertakes to find a market for 
any product turned out. Ba^s and flares and other products are 
made for the army by hospital patients. At this light work in the 
hospital workshops the men, it is said, may earn from 2 to 4 francs 
a day. 2 3 

OFFICE NATIONAL DES MUTILES ET REFORMES DE LA GUERRE.” 

For the return of men to civil employment after their active 
medical treatment is completed the central agency of coordination in 
France is now the “office national des mutiles et reformes de la 
guerre.” 

This national office was instituted under a joint decree of the 
minister of war, the minister of the interior, and the minister of 
labor, under date of March 2, 1916, for the purpose of coordinating 
the efforts of public and private agencies which were seeking to 
facilitate the return of men disabled in the war to active civil life 
under conditions most advantageous for them and for the com¬ 
munity. 

As has been noted, before the creation of the national office 
numerous agencies, public and private, had been established for the 
training and return to wage-earning employment of disabled men. 
The minister of commerce and the minister of agriculture had estab- 


* Classification of the centers of vocational education: 

1. National Institute, St. Maurice. 

2. Centers created by public administration connected with centers of functional reeducation. In 
order to obtain State subsidy these institutions must submit their proposed budget and program to the 
national oflico showing number of trades taught, probable number of pupils, statement of progn m of 
instruction, schedule of weekly hours of instruction, equipment, duration of training, probable v ages 
after training, and degree of physical ability necessary for the exercise of trades taught. Vocational schools 
under jurisdiction of the ministers of agriculture or commerce which organize special courses for the 
reeducation of the disabled come under this group. 

3. Public institution other than occupational schools and not attached to a center of functional reada p- 
tatinn and private institution. These me free as to organization, but must submit program and budget 
if desiring subsidy. The State subsidy is in proportion to the number of pupils. The granting >i a 
subsidy does not constitute an obligation for partial or for entire renewal. Continuation of the subsidy 
is conditional upon State supervision. During 191fi the reeducation commission of the national o:Hce 
advised generally upon the repartition of the subventions to schools. These expenditures are carried by 
a credit on the budget of the minister of the interior. 

* The statements regarding French hospitals are summarized from an article by Maj. John L. Todd, in 
tho American Journal of Care for Cripples, September, 1917. 




44 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

lished sections reserved for the training of invalided men in the 
technical and agricultural schools under the general direction of 
these ministries. The minister of the interior had grouped in centers 
of reeducation, in different regions of France, schools organized 
especially for the reeducation of disabled soldiers. The minister of 
war had organized a placement service for invalided men, and pro¬ 
posed to organize sections for vocational reeducation in connection 
with the hospital centers of physio-therapeutic treatment. 

The minister of labor, in a circular issued February 10, 1916, had 
discussed the advisability of creating special institutions for the em¬ 
ployment of crippled soldiers. After setting forth reasons showing the 
inadvisability of creating such institutions, the circular directed that 
all public-employment officers should collect all requests for employ¬ 
ment made to them by soldiers and should also solicit such requests, 
and that in cases where possible applicants should be placed in their 
former occupations and in their former localities. It further directed 
that if they found soldiers whose industrial ability or physical condi¬ 
tion could be improved, the papers of these soldiers should be sent to 
the central office, which, m cooperation with the bureaus of the 
minister of war, would send them to institutions for rehabilitation. 

The utility of a central office which should undertake to coordinate 
these divergent and disparate developments and to secure economy 
of effort and resource without lessening private initiative and enter¬ 
prise was apparent. Accordingly the national office was created and 
its composition and functions were generally defined by three joint 
ministerial decrees dated, respectively, March 2, March 16, and 
May 11, 1917. Under the terms of these orders the national office 
was extended to include: 

First. The office of centralization and investigations heretofore 
existing under the minister of war. 

Second. The commission to regulate the organization of profes¬ 
sional centers for the reeducation of wounded and disabled soldiers 
heretofore existing under the minister of the interior. 

Third. The central office of employment and the public offices of 
employ men t connected with the central office heretofore existing 
under the ministry of labor. 

It was also decreed that the office was to be administered by a 
commission composed of two representatives of the ministers of labor, 
Avar, and 'interior, respectively. The minister of labor was later 
designated as president of the commission. There was also added a 
council of employment, in which there were to be representatives of 
private organizations working for the disabled. 

The office 1 comprises: 

1. A committee of administration composed of nine members desig¬ 
nated by the ministers of labor, war, and interior, which is charged 
with the duty of collecting information, and of maintaining a con¬ 
stant interrelationship between the various public services which 
are occupied with the care of disabled men. 

2. A reeducation commission originally established by the minister 
of interior, which advises in technical matters of reeducation, and in 
the matter of requests for subventions to centers of reeducation. 


1 The following account of the French national office is summarized from a report (Bulletin No. 1. Annde 
11%) issued by the office covering its work during 1916. In this bulletin the statement is made that “the 
national office Is to be appealed to for its advice on all general measures relating to maimed soldiers, especially 
on the centralization of information relating to vocational education." 




VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 45 

3. A welfare council (council de perfeetionment) composed of persons 
specially qualified by experience, and of representatives of private 
societies, which is charged with caring for the general weliare of 
disabled men. 

PROVINCIAL COMMITTEES. 

In a majority of the French Provinces provincial committees for 
the care oi disabled men have been organized to aid the national 
office. In the Provinces severally the functions of these committees 
are similar to those of the national office in the country as a whole— 
namely, to coordinate the work being done in each Province, to in¬ 
sure cooperation between existing agencies, and to encourage the 
establishment of new agencies as needed. These committees vary in 
composition from Province to Province, the object being in each 
Province to associate together those persons who can most surely 
give efficient aid. In general, the local committee comprises civil 
and military representatives such as, for the minister of labor, the 
inspector of labor, and the chief of the provincial office of placement; 
for the minister of war, a delegate representing the general in com¬ 
mand of the subdivision, the local pension officer, and a member of 
the army health service; and in addition, representatives of agricul¬ 
tural services, of technical and public instruction, of medical socie¬ 
ties, of employers’ associations, of labor organizations, and of other 
associations. 

REHABILITATION. 

The stages in the rehabilitation of a disabled soldier in Franco 
may be described as follows: 

lie is sent to a center of readaptation which consists of a physio 
therapeutic center, a center of prosthesis and a center of vocational 
training. The institution is given directions concerning the patient, 
lie selects his own occupation with the advice of the physician in 
charge and the representative of a departmental committee who is 
the vocational officer. Before the patient’s education is complete 
the proper employment agency is communicated with. In deter¬ 
mining the pension rate no deduction is made for reeducation, skill, 
or earning power. After the man is placed the national office con¬ 
tinues to feel a certain responsibility tor him. A patient previously 
discharged may reapply for vocational education. 

There are several classes of institutions for reeducation, among 
which the following may be noted: 

1. Schools with technical shops reserved for the disabled. 

2. Combined lodging and boarding houses in which the disabled 
can be reeducated in special shops or attend regular classes in trade 
schools. 

3. Shops of trade associations organized for use of the disabled 
according to occupational groups. 

4. Individual grants permitting reeducation near residence. 

The aim is to shorten the period of reeducation as much as possible, 
at the same time providing adequate courses. Account is taken of 
the desire of the men to return to their homes as soon as possible 
and to regain their personal liberty. 


46 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


REGISTER. 

The national office maintains a complete register of invalided men, 
showing for each man his civil and military status, the nature of his 
disability, his occupation before the war, and his new employment. 
For collecting these data, the comite d’administration of the national 
office has prepared schedules of inquiries to be filled out and returned 
to the office by the proper authorities. By December 31, 1916, 
20,000 schedules had been filled out and returned to the office through 
the agency of the public-health service. Additional names had been 
secured from the provincial prefects and from the fists of pensioners. 

INQUIRY INTO TRADES. 

The office has also instituted inquiries among employers regarding 
the employment of men injured in industry, with a view to deter¬ 
mining what employments are suitable for men with given handicaps. 
Circulars have been addressed to employers explaining how they can 
assist in providing employment for disabled men—as, for example, 
by reserving places in their workshops insuring the disabled man the 
same position which he held before the war; by installing special 
machines and equipment adapted to the needs of handicapped men; 
and by establishing special workshops for teaching (de reapprentis- 
sage) old and new trades to such men. These circulars brought into 
the national office a large number of offers of employment. 

RESERVATION OF EMPLOYMENTS. 

To facilitate the placement of invalided men, certain employments 
were reserved for such men by an act passed April 17, 1916. This 
act provides that men disabled in the present war shall, during the 
war and for a period of five years after the termination of the war, be 
given preference in obtaining appointments in certain public service 
employments, according to administrative regulations and schedules. 
The act is based upon an act of March 21, 1905, making similar reser¬ 
vations for invalided men. Under this act three schedules of em¬ 
ployments, E, F, and G, in the public service were reserved; E being 
employments for under officers who had been in the service at least 
ten years; F, employments for underofficers, brigadiers, and corporals, 
after four years of service; and G, employments for soldiers after four 
years of service. According to the law of April 17, 1916, preference 
is to be exercised so as to favor fathers of large families. 

The act provides that an administrative decree, to be issued within 
three months of the passage of the act, shall determine the necessary 
measures for the application of the law, enumerate the categories of 
wounds or infirmities permitting competition for securing any 
reserved employment, and indicate the manner of securing certifi¬ 
cates of. professional aptitude, and the conditions under which names 
of candidates shall be inscribed on special fists, one such fist being 
established for each employment. 

Under the act, public services, as well as industrial and commercial 
enterprises enjoying a concession, a monoplv, or a subvention from 
the State, from a provincial government, or from a commune, are 
required to prepare lists of, and to indicate the conditions of access 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 47 

to employment not reserved which are of such a nature as will permit 
of their being assigned to soldiers under preferential rights. These 
lists are promulgated by a decree signed by the minister of war and 
each interested ministry. 

It is provided further that no commercial or industrial enterprise 
shall in the future obtain from the State, Province, or commune, a 
concession, monopoly, or subvention, except on condition of reserving 
by contract a certain number of employments for invalided soldiers. 

Soldiers who before their mobilization held one of the reserved 
employments, are, if their condition permits, reinstated in their old 
employment, or in another employment in the same service, reserved 
or not reserved. 

The administrative decree provided for in this act was issued July 
IS, 1916. It provides for detailed reports for each man, including a 
report by two military doctors, for listing men according to qualifica¬ 
tions for employment as well as for the regular notification of vacancies 
to bo filled in the various offices. 

EMPLOYEE'S LIABILITY IN CASE OF INJURY. 

A law enacted November 25, 1916, provides that in case of injury 
suffered by an invalided soldier or sailor in the course of an employ¬ 
ment, the judgment fixing the amount to be paid under the French 
insurance laws shall determine specifically (1) whether the cause of 
the accident was exclusively the preexisting injury incurred in war 
service, and (2) whether the permanent reduction in capacity re¬ 
sulting from the accident was increased by the preexisting war infirm¬ 
ity, and in what proportion. In the first case tne employer is relieved 
of all charges on account of the accident, and in the second case 
of a proportion of the charges equal to the aggravation as determined 
in the judgment. These charges lifted from the individual employer 
are paid out of a special fund maintained by a tax levied annually 
upon employers and insurance organizations. 

Canada. 

MILITARY HOSPITALS COMMISSION. 

There appeal's to bo no statute enacted by the Canadian Parliament 
dealing with vocational education of disabled veterans of the war. 
There are, however, several orders in council containing provisions in 
regard to this subject. 

By order 341, approved June 30, 1915, the hospital commission was 
appointed for the purpose of providing hospital accommodations and 
convalescent homes in Canada for officers and men of the Canadian 
expeditionary force who ret urned invalided from the front. By the order 
the commission was empowered to incur and authorize expenditures 
connected with the treatment and care of the sick and wounded as 
well as with the organization and administration of hospitals and 
homes. Such expenditures are to be charged against the war appro¬ 
priation vote or against some other special fund set aside by Parlia¬ 
ment. 

By subsequent order, No. 420, approved October 14, 1915, this 
commission was abolished and in lieu thereof the military hospitals 


48 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

and convalescent homos commission was established. This latter 
committee was authorized to select medical and nursing staffs and to 
recommend to the governor in council an expenditure which it con¬ 
sidered necessary for the treatment and care of the wounded; to 
accept such funds, bequests, and legacies as were devised to it, and to 
make all expenditures of such bequests, etc., on behalf of the members 
of the Canadian expeditionary forces for the purpose of carrying out 
such objects as were decided upon by the commission. It was em¬ 
powered to deal also with the question of the employment of members 
of the Canadian expeditionary force on return to Canada, and was 
authorized to cooperate with provincial governments for the purpose 
of providing such employment. Any expenditure incurred by the 
commission under authority of the governor in council is made a 
charge against the war appropriation vote or any other available 
appropriation made by Parliament for the purpose. 

On April 4, 1916, this order was amended by order No. 692, which 
added Dr. Shepherd, dean of medicine in the University of McGill, 
and Mr. Peters, chairman of the Keturned Soldiers’ Club, to the 
commission, it having been decided to establish a branch for thera¬ 
peutic and functional treatments under the direct supervision of a 
permanent medical authority. 

By order No. 880, approved June 29, 1916, a scale was established 
prescribing the sums to be granted for personal expenses to men 
undergoing training, provisions being made on a sliding scale, for 
married men and their dependents and unmarried men having 
dependents. 

The pay provided was to continue for one month after completion 
of vocational training whether or not employment had been secured. 
The order establishing the scale refers to the report dated June 17, 
1917, made by Hon. Sir James A. Lougheed, president of the military 
hospitals commission, regarding the vocational training of members 
of the Canadian expeditionary force. It also states that the duty of 
the State to provide training for some new occupation for those dis¬ 
abled in war has been recognized by all the nations now at war ; that 
the people of Canada are strongly in favor of suitable provision being 
made for vocational training for disabled soldiers; that technical 
schools, agricultural colleges, and other public institutions have 
agreed to receive disabled men for training; and that many offers 
have been received from private commercial establishments to 
provide training and subsequent employment when men have become 
proficient. 

The military hospitals commission upon its organization created as 
branches central provincial committees. The Province of Ontario by an 
act of legislature entitled “ the soldiers’ aid commission act,” approved 
April 27, 1916, confirmed the appointment of the central provincial 
committee appointed for the Province of Ontario, and declared the 
committee to be to all intents and purposes legal and valid. This act 
also provided that the commission, acting as the central provincial 
committee for the Province of Ontario, in addition to the members 
of the Canadian expeditionary force, should also aid any member of 
His Majesty’s imperial forces, or the forces of any of the allies who 
as reservists and while resident in Canada were called upon to serve 
in the imperial forces or any of the forces of the allies, and who as a result 
of wounds, disease, or other injuries sustained during the period of enlist- 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 49 


mcnt, were unable to pursue their former calling or occupat ion. By the 
provisions of the act the committee was authorized to enter into 
arrangements with the department of education of Ontario or with 
any educational authority or institution for providing instructions 
of any kind, including technical and industrial instruction, for any 
person entitled to receive benefit under the act. 

PURPOSES AND METHODS OF THE COMMISSION. 

The following account of the purposes and methods of the military 
hospitals commission is taken from an official report: 

The military hospitals commission was formed at the instance of the prime minister* 
the Right Hon. Sir Robert L. Borden, P. C., G. 0. M. G., by order in council dated 
June 30, 1915, its powers being extended by order in council dated October 12, 1915. 
Following are some of the clauses of the commission's charter: 

1. That a commission, hereafter to be called the military hospitals and convales¬ 
cent homes commission, the short title of which shall be the military hospitals com¬ 
mission, be appointed to deal with the provision of hospital accommodation and mili¬ 
tary convalescent homes in Canada, for officers, noncommissioned officers, and men 
of the Canadian expeditionary force who return invalided from the front, and for offi¬ 
cers, noncommissioned officers, and men invalided while on active service in Canada, 
Bermuda, or elsewhere. 

2. That the commission be empowered to select medical and nursing staffs and to 
appoint such other personnel as may be needed for the management of hospitals and 
homes; provided that a general schedule of pay and allowances be submitted for 
approval by the governor in council. 

3. That it be empowered to recommend to the governor in council any expendi¬ 
ture which it may consider necessary for the treatment and care of the sick and 
wounded, including the purchase of supplies and equipment, or for the organization, 
administration, and maintenance of hospitals and homes and to expend any moneys 
for the purposes and to the amount authorized from time to time by the governor in 
council. 

4. That it be empowered to call in the aid of any department of the Federal admin¬ 
istration; in particular to use the machinery of the militia department, and where 
desirable to draw on that department for supplies, stores, and equipment, and to 
utilize the services of divisional and district staffs. 

5. That any expenditure incurred by the commission under the authority of the 
governor in council be made a charge against the war appropriation vote, or when 
that ceases to be operative against any other available appropriation made by Par¬ 
liament for the purpose. 

6. That it be empowered to accept such funds, bequests, and legacies as may be 

given or devised by individuals or corporations or others, with authority, subject to 
the approval of the governor in council, to make all expenditure and to administer 
any funds, bequests, or legacies on behalf of such members of the Canadian expedi¬ 
tionary force as in the judgment of the commission may be entitled thereto, and for 
the purpose of carrying out such objects and purposes as may be determined by the 
commission. . ^ 

7. That it be empowered to deal with the question of employment for members of 
the Canadian expeditionary force on their return to Canada, and to cooperate with 
provincial goverments and others for the purpose of providing employment as may be 
deemed necessary. 

The commission early recognized that its work fell under three main headings: 

First. The provision of convalescent hospitals and homes in different parts of the 
Dominion. 

Second. The provision of vocational training for those who, through their disa¬ 
bility incurred in active service, would be unable to follow their previous occupations. 

Third. The establishment of the necessaiy machinery for the provision of employ¬ 
ment for those who require vocational training and for those who will during and at 
the conclusion of the war. 

The forms on the following pages are used by the Canadian Military 
Hospitals Commission. Form 156 is used for making a preliminary 
survey of all men. Form 106 is used for collecting detailed informa¬ 
tion concerning men appearing to need vocational reeducation. 

42297°— S. Doc. 166, 65—2-4 


50 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS, 


Form 150. 

Military Hospitals Commission—Vocational Branch. 

Survey Form (preliminary). 

M. H. C. File No. 

1. Name..Local file No. 

Address (present)............—...-.-. 

Address (home). 

Regiment No... Rank. Battalion. C.E.F.. 

Age (last- birthday). Birthplace. 

If bom abroad, date came to Canada... Religion. 

Nationality of father..; of mother,. Occupation of father 


2. Single, married, or widower. Number of dependents 

(a) Applicant’s statement of disability... 


(6) Discharged on 


Elementary schooling— 
Where obtained .... 


.. Date of last medical board.. Place 

3. EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. 

. Kind of school.. Years. 


(If in more than one place or country, give time, etc., in each.) 

Age on leaving. Grade or standard on leaving. 

Reason for leaving.. 

(Needed to earn money; preferred to go to work; no higher school available, etc.) 

Subsequent education— 

Note.—S tate whether (1) high or secondary school, (2) technical or trade school, (3)business college, 
(4) college or university, (5) evening.classes, (6) correspondence school, (7; private study. 

(а) Name of school. Place-.. 

Course taken. Years. Was course completed. 

(б) Name of school. Place. 

Course taken. Years. Was course completed. 

(c) Name of school. Place. 

Course taken. Years. Was course completed .... 

(d) Any other education... 

4. INDUSTRIAL HISTORY. 

(а) Trade or principal occupation. How long followed .... 

If learned by apprenticeship, or how. Average wage per month. 

(б) Trade or occupation at time of enlistment. How long followed. 

(c) Details of employment, including (a) and (6): 


Occupation. 

Employer. 

Place. 

Period. 

Average wage 
per month. 




.to. 





.to. 





.to. 





.to. 





.to. 


. 


. 

.to. 







Note.—I f “clerk,” “warehouseman,” “laborer,” or other general term, state specific branch. 

19... 


Date. 

Interviewed by 


(Man’s signature.) 

























































































VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OE DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 51 


Form 106. 

Military Hospitals Commission—Vocational Branch. 

Survey Form. 

A. General: M. H. C. File No. 

1. Name . Local file No. 

Address (present) . 

Address (home) . 

Regiment No. Rank . Battalion, C. E. F .. 

Age (last birthday). Birthplace . 

If born abroad, date came to Canada. Religion. 

Nationality of father.; of mother. Occupation of father 


2. Man’s dependents— Name. Date of birth. Age. 

Wife ... 

Children 1. 

2 . 

3 . 

4 ... 

5 . 

6 . 

Other dependents.. 


3. Educational History.— Elementary schooling— 

Where obtained . Kind of school . Years 


(If in more than one place or country, give time, etc., in each.) 

Age on leaving... Grade or standard on leaving. 

Reason for leaving 


(Needed to earn money; preferred to go to work; no higher school available, etc.) 
Subsequent education. 

Note.—S tate whether (1) high or secondary school, (2) technical or trade school, (3) business 
college, (4) college or university, (5) evening classes, (6) correspondence school, (7) private 
study. 

(а) Name of school. Place. 

Course taken . Years Was course completed. 

(б) Name of school. Place. 

Course taken . Years Was course completed. 

(c) Name of School . Place. 

Course taken . Years Was course completed. 

(d) Any other education .*. 


4. Industrial History. 

(а) Trade or principal occupation . How long followed. 

If learned by apprenticeship, or how . Average wage per month 

(б) Trade or occupation at time of enlistment . How long followed . 


(c) Details of employment including (a) and (ft). 


Occupation. 

Employer. 

Place. 

Period. 

Average wage 
per month. 
































Note.—I f ‘‘clerk,” “warehouseman,” “laborer,” or other generaf term, state specific branch. 


, 19.. 


Date . 

Interviewed by 


(Man’s signature.) 



























































































52 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

B. Report of vocational officer (reeducation cases): 

5. Man’s preference for future occupation— 

First preference. Reason for it. 


Second preference. Reason for it 


6.' Personal characteristics— 

(A) (c) Recreations. (b) Hobbies 

(c) Favorite reading. 

( d ) Habits, as drinking. (f) Smoking 


(B) (a) Personal appearance. 

(b) Manner. 

(C) Intelligence (general capacity). Grade. 

(D) Occupational stability, (a) Grade. 

(b) If candidate is changeable, state type of change.:. 

(c) Extent of change. 

( d ) Cause of change. 

( e ) If candidate is changeable, has the vocational officer reasons for thinking that he will 

become stable. (/) If so, what?. 

(E) Disposition, (a) Sociability. (b) Has candidate any emo¬ 

tional characteristic that the vocational officer would consider cither a business asset or a 
business handicap?. (c) If so, what?. 


(F) (a) Conduct on service. (b) Conduct in convalescent home 

7. Training during convalescence (subjects and results). 


8. Type of vocations for which ability and aptitude are evident 

9. Vocational officer’s preference and reason for it. 


(a) Is a position available for the man on the completion of his training for the new occupation as 

recommended?. 

If so, state where and at what rate of pay. 

(b) If no definite position is in view, has the vocational officer satisfied himself that the prospects 

for employment are good?. 

10. Method and place of training recommended... 


11. Estimated period. Tuition fees, $. Books and materials, $. 

Date., 19. . 

(Vocational officer.) 

Note.— Sections 6 to 9 are to be regarded as a confidential report of information and impressions obtained 
by the vocational officer during one or more personal interviews with the candidate, or from any other 
sources. The information asked for in section 6, subsections (A) to (E) is to lie given in terms named in 
the confidential instructions issued for the guidance of vocational officers. 



















































VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 53 


C. Report of special medical officer: 

12. Last medical board held at., on.,19.... 

Note. If any medical boards have been held since the one at discharge depot on arrival in 
Canada, acopy of the last board must be sent with survey form to head office M. II. C. 

13. (a) Nature of disability. 

(6) Nature of wound or affection from which disability resulted. 

(c) Date of origin.(<f)Place of origin. 

14. Present physical condition. 

(This section must be filled in as fully as possible.) 


(a) Height. ( b ) Weight (without overcoat). (c) Girth, chest.I.I. 

Insp.|Exp. | Expan. 

15. Have any complications developed since the holding oflast medical board?. 

If so, what?. 

16. (For amputation cases)— 

(a) State nature of amputation, etc. 

(b) Length of stump.(c) Character of stump. 

(d) Power of stump. (e) Usefulness of stump. 

(/) What artificial appliances are required ? (^)IIave any been ordered?. 

(h) Have any been received?. (i) Are any being worn?. 

17. (a) Present degree of incapacity (stated in percentages). ( b ) Probable duration. 

(c) Estimated degree of permanent incapacity. 

Note.—I n estimating incapacity, the medical officer will follow the instructions issued by the 
board of pension commissioners. 

18. State your reasons why candidate will be unable to follow his former occupation. 


19. (a) Will the disability of the candidate handicap him in his competition with the normal worker 

in the occupation suggested by vocational officer?. 

(b) If so, state the manner in which his disability will be a handicap. 

20. (a) Will candidate’s disability increase his liability to hazards in the occupation suggested by vo¬ 

cational officer? . 

(b) If so, state the hazard and precautions to be observed. 


21. Influence of increasing years, (a) Will candidate be able to carry on as long as the normal worker 

in the occupation suggested by the vocational officer?. 

(b) If not, how much sooner may he have to give up?. 

(c) State any conditions which, in later life, may develop from the candidate’s disability and in¬ 
terfere with his vocational fitness. 

22. (a) Will the candidate’s condition demand any special consideration from his employer, such as 

shorter hours, periods of rest, light work, special type of work, or machine, etc?. 

(6) If so, what?. 

23. Remarks... 


Date 


,19_ Signature 
























































54 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

D. Recommendations of disabled soldiers' training board: 

24. 


(Vocational officer.) 


(Medical member.) 


Place 


Date 


19.... 


E. 


(Member of local advisory 
board.) 


(For head office use only): 

25. Medical review. Are the replies to sections 17 to 24 herein concurred in? 
If not, state specifically in each case the reasons for nonconcurrence. . 


y 


.,19.... 


(Medical officer.) 


19 .... 


(Voeational secretary.) 

































VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 55 

Belgium. 

By statute enacted October 30, 1915, Belgium constituted a 
society called “CEuvre du travail des blesses beiges.’' The purpose 
of the society is to sell at the highest price the objects manufactured 
by the Belgian wounded soldiers in hospitals, convalescent depots, 
and professional military schools affiliated with the work, and to 
use the money thus obtained, together with such other funds as 
may be received as contributions, for the purchase of raw material 
to be manufactured by the soldiers and also to provide a fund to be 
distributed to the soldiers and enable them to establish themselves 
in business. 

Australia. 

On May 30, 1916, Australia enacted the Australian soldiers’ 
repatriation fund act. Nothing in this act discloses how the fund 
referred to has been or is to be obtained, the provisions of the statute 
being restricted to determining how the fund shall be safeguarded 
and distributed. 

Section 3 provides that the fund shall be invested in and placed 
under the control of trustees appointed by the act, and section 4 
appoints a board of trustees, with the prime minister at its head 
and prescribes its organization. The trustees are authorized to 
appoint an executive committee and are charged with three duties: 
(1) Allocating to various State war councils such money or property 
as they shall determine; (2) investing in securities such part of fund 
as is not immediately required for the purposes of the fund; and (3) 
selling, or otherwise disposing of, any property forming portion of 
receipts of fund. They are also directed to forward to the prime 
minister for presentation to Parliament an annual report showing 
receipts and administration of the funds. The State war councils, 
to which the trustees are authorized to allot money, are defined in 
section 2 to mean “in regard to each State a body appointed or 
authorized by the governor and council of that State as the State 
war council and approved by the governor general.” By section 7 
it is decreed that the sums allotted to the State war councils shall be 
held upon trust to apply such sums, subject to such conditions as may 
be imposed by the Governor General or the board of trustees, for 
the assistance of Australian soldiers and their dependents. 

Italy. 

On March 25, 1917, the Italian Government enacted legislation 
having for its aim the care and help of disabled soldiers. A summary 
of a digest of this enactment made by Bargoni and Bernacchi is as 
follows: 

1. The statute aims to provide, with the assistance of the State, 
complete, uniform, and permanent help for disabled soldiers. This 
purpose is achieved through the agency of a “national committee for 
protection and help of disabled soldiers” (Opera nazionale per la 
protezione ed assistenza degli invalidi della guerra.) The committee’s 
headquarters are in Rome, and it is administered by a council of 19 
members comprising 2 deputies and 2 senators, elected by the 


56 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

chamber of deputies and the senate; 12 members nominated by 
royal decree, recommended by the president of the council of minis¬ 
ters, including delegates from the departments of the interior, war, 
marine, treasury, industry, and commerce and labor, designated 
by the ministers of the departments; and representatives of com¬ 
mittees for the care of war invalids and public relief and pension 
societies; an executive committee is elected by the council; the 
council elects its own president and vice president for terms of two 
years; it elects annually 4 members who, with the president and 
vice president, constitute the executive committee. 

2. The act applies to all disabled soldiers, before and after dis¬ 
charge, and to others discharged according to Italian military pension 
laws. 

3. It provides (a) medical, orthopedic, and prosthetic assistance 
not provided by military authorities; (b) financial assistance in 
special cases; (c) social assistance by primary technical education 
or by reeducation; id) suitable situations; ( e ) legal and medical help 
when needed; (/) every kind of assistance, protection, and control 
needed. 

4. The work of this committee depends upon the cooperation of 
every public and private institution or organization for assistance of 
disabled soldiers. 

5. The committee coordinates and completes the work of institu¬ 
tions mentioned in 4, and has right to control their actions. 

6. Discharged soldiers continue work in the army, or in a private 
or public institution, when the doctor declares them fit. 

10. The minister of interior will authorize in his annual budget the 
disbursement of a sum proportionate to needs of the national com¬ 
mittee. (The sum of 1,500,000 lire is made available for the year 
1916-17. The office is authorized to receive other funds, donations, 
and subventions.) 

12. After completion of medical treatment the soldier is sent to a 
special institution for a technical reeducation course, lasting, generally, 
six months. (After six months the national office instead of tfie 
military department assumes the expense of a longer period of train¬ 
ing.) 

17. The cost of temporary or final prosthetic apparatus is borne 
by military authorities, and repairs are borne by the national com¬ 
mittee. 

19. Pensions are not affected. 

21. Loans for buying land or establishing themselves in business 
are made to soldiers on security of pensions. 

22. Workingmen’s insurance societies are obliged to insure dis¬ 
abled soldiers who have gone back to work. 

24. The Government is intrusted with the compilation of all 
statistics relating to disabled soldiers. 

The minister of interior must report annually to Parliament upon 
the work of the national office. It was provided further that within 
three months of the publication of this law, regulations for its execu¬ 
tion and for the functioning of the office should be published in a 
royal decree. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 57 
South Africa . 1 

South African soldiers disabled in service are given reeducation 
and curative treatment at the South African Military Hospital in 
Richmond Park near London. The distance of South Africa, the 
lack of modern artificial limbs and modern industrial and educational 
teaching in this country makes rehabilitation in England desirable 
for the South African soldiers. While they are undergoing treat¬ 
ment at Richmond Park they are on leave from the army and receive 
allowances from Union funds administered by the high commissioner. 
Over 90 per cent of the men who are eligible elect reeducation. Such 
training is voluntary. Training once elected is however under 
military discipline. Reeducation is begun at the earliest possible 
stage in convalescence. As soon as the South African soldier reaches 
the hospital, he is put into one of the following classes: First, those 
unfit for further active military service; second, those whose fitness 
is doubtful; and, third, those who will probably become fit on the 
completion of treatment. Men in these classes are given curative 
treatment to enable them to return to service as soon as possible. If 
the medical officer decides that a patient will not be able to return to 
active service his reeducation is begun at once. The subjects taught 
include those of general education, bookkeeping, stenography, secre¬ 
tarial work, metal and wood working trades, cinematograph, and 
electrical and engine work. A boot-making equipment is to be 
added. As the instruction is given by highly skilled teachers,, the 
work is not only standard in every way but unusual advantages are 
offered and the men are eager to avail themselves of the opportunities. 
Several have passed examinations of the London Chamber of Com¬ 
merce and the National Union of Teachers. If a man’s medical 
treatment is completed and he is discharged from the hospital before 
he has finished his vocational training, he lives at a hostel erected on 
the grounds and continues his course until consummated. 

Men disabled in operations in Africa are cared for in institutions 
in the principal centers in the Union. Those who will need artificial 
appliances are sent to Richmond Park where they can undergo 
reeducation while waiting for the appliances to be fitted. “Every 
man, however crippled, who passes through the training, is treated 
as a valuable asset to the Union, to which he ultimately returns as a 
soldier.” 

On discharge the men are entitled to the regular pension rates of 
the British troops. 


N E WFOUNDLAND . 2 

No special institutions for reeducation have boon required in New¬ 
foundland. When any member of the Newfoundland war contingent 
is disabled, he receives such military hospital treatment, convalescent 
care and training as is necessary in Great Britain. When he returns 
to Newfoundland he receives a pension at colonial rates provided by 
the Newfoundland Government. He finds no difficulty in securing 
employment and is readily absorbed in the general community. 


» Recalled to Life No. 2. Page 271. 

* Condensed from account in Recalled to Life, No. 2. Page 27T. 




58 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

India. 1 

Detailed information of preparation for disabled soldiers in India 
is not available. Queen Mary’s Technical School for Disabled Indian 
Soldiers has been established in Bombay. It accommodates about 
200 and is supported by subscriptions from various Indian funds. 
Reeducation classes are offering instruction in agriculture, tailoring, 
carpentering, elementary engineering, and a machine shop is being 
installed. 

Artificial limbs are provided in Bombay, employment bureaus have 
been established, and relief funds provide for the men and their fami¬ 
lies. 

New Zealand. 2 

There has been established in New Zealand a special department 
of the Government to obtain suitable employment for the returned 
soldier and also, by any other means, to assist in his readaptation to 
civilian life. As most of the men discharged from the forces up to the 
present time are those who have been invalided home from the front, 
it follows that the major activity of the discharged soldiers’ informa¬ 
tion department has been looking out for the welfare of crippled and 
disabled men. 

The New Zealanders have laid special stress on the importance of 
getting in touch with every single returning man, inquiring regarding 
his situation, and offering such, assistance as is available. To this 
end arrangements were made for representatives of the department 
to board each incoming transport, and to obtain in preliminary form 
from the men themselves the items of information desired for record. 
Later on this system was further improved through arranging to have 
the principal data listed by the military authorities on board the 
transports while still at sea. The information is then completed by 
the department’s officers upon arrival in port, and the cards for the 
central register are written up without delay. 

An important factor in the department’s work is the chain of local 
committees. 3 The personnel of these committees is drawn, almost 
without exception, from influential citizens who are officers or mem¬ 
bers of the local patriotic societies. In fact the committees are 
often subcommittees of these societies, and if not in this relation, 
are in most intimate touch with them. Knowing the resources and 
opportunities in their home community, the members of a local 
committee are able intelligently to advise regarding the course of 
action in an individual case under discussion. 

The man, when first listed, is as yet undischarged and therefore 
still under the jurisdiction of the defense department. So after 
advice regarding the home-coming man is forwarded informally to 
the local patriotic organization, his card is filed in the central register 
of the returned soldiers’ information department under the classi¬ 
fication “not ready for action.” 


1 Condensed from account in Recalled to Life, No. 2. Page 273. 

2 Reprint from publication of the Red Cross Institute for Crippled and Disabled Men. 

3 To date local committees have been established in the following communities throughout the dominion: 

Whangerei, Dargaville, Auckland, Hamilton, Cambridge, Thames, Paeroa, Waihi, Te Aroha, Rotorua* 
Tauranga, Opotiki, Te Awamutu, Te Kuiti, Taumarunui, Taihape, Marten, Feilding, Palmerston North 
Taranaki, Wanganui, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, Dannevirke, Pahiatua, Wairarapa, Wellington, Blen¬ 
heim, Nelson, Westport, Greymouth, Hokitika, Christchurch, Ashburton, Timaru, Oamaru, Dunedin, 
and Southland. * 



VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 59 


The military authorities notify the department a few days in 
advance of a man’s discharge from the strength, and arrangements are 
thereupon made to have him personally interviewed. The local 
police officials are often delegated with the duty of this visit. The 
inter viewer is provided with a blank report to fill out, and with a 
circular of information to give to the soldier. He i3 cautioned that 
the inquiries should be made in a sympathetic spirit, in order that 
there may be formed a true estimate of the man s needs and merits. 
The form calls for answers to the following inquiries: 

TO BE ANSWERED IN ALL CASES. 

1. Name and address of soldier. Is the man of good character? Are his surround¬ 
ings respectable? Is he living with relatives, or with whom? 

2. Is he in good health, or is he still suffering from disease or wounds? 

3. Is he lit for employment, and, if so, has he obtained employment, and what are 
his wages? If he has not. does he desire employment, and, if so. what kind of employ¬ 
ment does he wish for? 

4. What are his means outside his wages? 

5. Has he received assistance from any patriotic society, etc., and, if so, give 
amounts and dates. 

6. Is he receiving full military pay? 

7. Have you handed the man the information leaflet inclosed herewith? 

TO BE ANSWERED IN CASES OF MEN AT PRESENT INCAPACITATED, BUT LIKELY TO 

MAKE A GOOD RECOVERY. 

8. When is he likely to be sound and well and ready for work? 

9. Is he desirous of present employment, and, if so, what work could he undertake? 

10. What employment is he desirous of undertaking when restored to health? 

TO BE ANSWERED IN CASES OF MEN PERMANENTLY DISABLED BY SICKNESS OR WOUNDS. 

11. What is the nature of his disablement? 

12. What employment do you think the man is capable of? 

13. What are his own ideas on the subject? 

14. If unemployable, in what way do you think he could be best assisted? 

15. Has he applied for a war pension? If a war pension has v been granted, what 
is the amount? 

If the man does not require the department's assistance, please obtain his signature 
here. 

I do not require the department’s assistance in obtaining employment. 

(Signature.) 

Any other information which interviewing officer can supply. 


(Signature.) 

(Date.) 

Very naturally, a considerable number of the men do not require 
specific assistance. They may have a business or a farm to return 
to or bo in possession of private means. Others are found to be 
already employed or to have had employment promised them. In 
such cases the man’s record card is transferred to the “disposed of” 
section of the register. 

The records of men who are under curative treatment and are not 
yet ready for employment are filed temporarily in the “ under action ” 
section of the register. Except in instances of systematic neglect 
to reply to communications, a case is not abandoned until employ¬ 
ment shall have been obtained or the office definitely informed that 
its assistance is not required. 




60 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


Any inquiries on the part of the men regarding land settlement or 
pensions are referred to the departments of the Government having 
these matters under jurisdiction. 

Cases where the men have applied for or inquired regarding em¬ 
ployment are regarded as active. In seeking positions to meet these 
demands every possible agency is employed. 

The department has conducted a propaganda to secure preference 
in employment opportunity for returned men. It has communicated 
with local authorities, patriotic organizations, farmers’ unions, and 
private employers and has found the response, on the whole, extremely 
favorable. The Government has instructed all the departments that 
ex-members of the expeditionary force are to be given preference for 
all vacancies which they are qualified to fill. The local labor offices 
act on the same principle. In result a great many men have been 
appointed by the public-service commissioner or secured employment 
by the branches of the labor department. The railway department 
has helped to the best of its ability, but has itself been under necessity 
of providing for its own former employees who have returned disabled 
from the front. 

The man desirous of obtaining employment is instructed to get in 
touch with the local committee in his home district. The case is then 
charged against the committee on the record of the department. If 
necessary, there are sent periodical reminders inquiring regarding 
progress and advising of any apparently suitable vacancies which 
have come to the knowledge of the central office. The department 
communicates to the committees all offers of employment which come 
to its notice. In the case of new offers it makes an inspection of the 
cases charged against the committee in the locality where the work 
is available and telegraphs this committee, directing attention to and 
men who seem suitable candidates for the vacancies. 

The department keeps a double card index of the men awaiting 
employment. One set of cards is classified according to occupation; 
a second according to district of residence. Offers of employment are 
likewise suitably indexed. 

A statement indicating the number of candidates for employment 
in each district is sent out weekly to the local committees. This 
serves as a check on their number of open cases, and incites friendly 
rivalry between the committees to keep down the number charged 
against them. 

Up to June 21, 1917, the total number of men who had been 
registered by the department was 9,070. This number included the 
general type of invalid as well as the men physically disabled. The 
cases were subject to the following classification: 


Oases disposed of: Placed in employment, returned to military duty, or their 
old employment, or signed a statement that they do not require the depart¬ 
ment’s assistance. 

Cases under action: Department making inquiries on the soldier’s behalf or 

awaiting notice of discharge. 

Cases not ready for action: Men recently returned to New Zealand, now con¬ 
valescing, not ready for employment, or not yet discharged by the military 

authorities. 

Open cases: Men for whom employment is desired. 


7, 298 
881 

692 

199 


Total. 


9,070 








VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 61 


The results in an effort to provide special training or reeducation 
for disabled men have not, on the whole, been encouraging. Although 
the opportunities are brought systematically to the attention of the 
men the response has been indifferent. But the work is as yet new, 
and there are several factors that seem in some degree to account for 
the situation. 

For agricultural training, arrangements have been made with the 
agricultural department to accept a limited number of men for 
instruction at tne state farms. Among the various branches of farm 
work are dairying, fruit farming, cropping, poultry raising, bee cul¬ 
ture, and market gardening. In scientific training in agricultural 
and pastoral subjects the authorities of Lincoln College, Wellington, 
have placed at the disposal of ex-soldiers five scholarships of £20 
each, and have agreed to take nonresident pupils at a nominal fee. 
In deserving cases the returned soldiers’ information department is 
prepared to supplement the scholarship grants by an adequate annual 
allowance. Few soldiers have taken advantage of the opportunities 
for agricultural training. 

Clerical training for disabled soldiers is being provided free of 
expense to the Go vernment or the men by the New Zealand Society of 
Accountants. The subjects covered are those prescribed for the 
society’s bookkeeping examination. The examination fees of pupils 
prepared to sit at the university examinations in accountancy are 
also met by the society. In addition to the classroom instruction 
courses are also given by correspondence for the benefit of men who 
can not attend in person. 

According to the annual report of the returned soldiers’ informa¬ 
tion department, “a considerable number of men have from time to 
time entered for the classes, but it is understood that with few ex¬ 
ceptions the attendance has been desultory and the progress poor, and 
it nas lately been intimated to the department by the secretary that 
the council of the society is now considering whether it is justified in 
continuing the expenditure of some hundreds of pounds for such 
unsatisfactory results. The matter is unquestionably one for very 
profound regret, the scheme having originally been adopted by the 
society on its own initiative and promising, as we all hoped, very 
valuable developments.” 

For disabled men who can not return to their former occupations 
there is offered free tuition at various technical schools throughout 
New Zealand. At the Wellington Technical College, for example, 
instruction is provided in building construction, painting, decoration, 
and sign writing, carpentry and joinery, plumbing, machine work, 
jewelry making, metal work, plastering, and modeling. At other 
instruction centers there are different curricula. In June, 1917, 69 
men were taking training at technical schools. 

By arrangement with the Jubilee Institute for the Blind training is 
provided for men partially or totally blinded at the front. 

To remove any possible financial obstacle to men desiring to under¬ 
take training, the Government some time ago decided to grant main¬ 
tenance allowances not in excess of £1 a week, irrespective of pension 
payments, to men attending classes. These allowances are condi¬ 
tioned only upon approval of the training subject as suitable to the 
individual case and upon good conduct, regular attendance, and sat¬ 
isfactory progress. 


62 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


Related to the question of training for men unable to follow their 
former trade is that of allowing disabled men to accept positions 
with private employers at rates of pay less than those fixed by current 
awards or agreements and minimum wage legislation. The subject 
was taken up by the labor department early in 1916, and under an 
order in council then approved, 14 under-rate permits prescribing 
weekly wages of from £2 10s. to £1 15s. have been issued. 

The establishment of special reeducational institutions for war 
cripples has been urged by various individuals and organizations. 
The recommendation has elicited from the minister in charge of the 
returned soldiers’ information department the following comment: 

During the last few weeks the question of the establishment of special training 
colleges for disabled men has been urged on the attention of the department. The 
gentlemen concerned in this movement have shown most praiseworthy interest in 
the welfare of our returned men, and which, in so far as it manifests a lively interest 
in our soldiers, must command the sympathy and respect of us all. I gather from the 
correspondence which has come under my notice that the promoters of the scheme 
have in mind the provision of training colleges and farms for men still undergoing 
hospital treatment, and if this is correct the question more properly appertains to the 
work of the department of public health than to the discharged soldiers ’ information 
department. So far as the latter department is concerned, I regret that I can not at 
present see my way to support a scheme of the character suggested. The small extent 
to which existing facilities have been availed of would not, in my opinion, justify the 
large expense which the institution of special training colleges with expensive build¬ 
ings, apparatus, and staff would involve. I am supported in this view by the attitude 
taken up by the statutory war pensions committee, which has been established by 
legislation in the United Kingdom, and which amongst other functions deals with 
the training and employment of disabled men. In addressing its local committees 
on this particular subject it urges them to make use as far as possible of existing in¬ 
stitutions, specifically mentioning the technical schools, and adds that “as the num¬ 
ber of men for whom training is needed will diminish year by year after the war, 
expenditure on the provision of buildings and apparatus, which will only be required 
for a temporary period, should be kept within strict limits.” 

In addition to the foregoing, I doubt whether an institution of the character pro¬ 
posed, involving a considerable measure of control and discipline, would be appre¬ 
ciated by the men for whose benefit it is designed. I am inclined to think that the 
younger men would before very long find the necessary restraint distasteful and irk¬ 
some. In this opinion I am supported by the views of a prominent member of the 
medical profession in New Zealand—one who I may say has had special opportunities 
of forming an opinion through daily contact with the inmates of one of our large con¬ 
valescent homes. Speaking on this very subject of a training college for men out 
of or nearly out of the doctor’s hands, he says, “I am a little dubious as to whether 
the men would be content to remain long under institutional control;” and again, 
“I feel sure that the feeling of independence from control, impossible in any institu¬ 
tion, is an essential factor in any scheme designed to appeal to the average man, and 
not to the exceptional returned man.” I am entirely in accord with these views, 
and for the reasons given I could not, for the present at any rate, see my way to support 
the schemes which have been put forward. 

While the experience in the matter of training has been disap¬ 
pointing, the results in obtaining employment for disabled men have 
been unusually successful. The latter may go far to explain the 
former, especially in view of the great present demand for labor in 
New Zealand, and the natural desire on the part of the men to get 
back at once to remunerative and productive occupation. 

The amount of pension award, based as it is on medical evidence 
as to physical condition, is a fair criterion of the extent of disability. 
A tabulation has been prepared showing the number of men drawing 
pensions of £1 5s. per week and upward for whom the returned 
soldiers’ information department obtained remunerative employ¬ 
ment. As loss of sight in one eye carries with it a pension of £1 per 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 63 


week it is evident that the range of pensions represented in the 
tabulation embrace only cases of grave disability. A summary of 
this tabulation gives the following totals: 


Weekly pension: 
£1 5s. Od... 
£1 10s. Od... 
£1 15s. Od... 


Number of placements. 

. 80 

. 146 

. 47 


In some amputation cases the placement results were as follow's: 


Amputation. 

Pension. 

Employment. 

Amputation. 

Pension. 

Employment. 

1 £. s. d. 

Left thigh...! 1 15 0 

Right arm... i 1 15 0 

Left foot. j 1 15 0 

Left knee_ 1 1 15 0 

Artificial limb making. 
Storeman. 

Draftsman. 

A rtificial limb making. 
Nigh.t watchman. 

Fruit farmiug. 

! Clerk. 

Left leg. 

Right foot... 
Leg. 

£. s. d. 

1 15 0 

1 10 0 

1 10 0 

1 10 0 

1 10 0 

1 5 0 

Night exchange attend¬ 
ant. 

Land officer. 

Mechanic. 

Basket maker. 

Clerical position. 
Messenger. 

Right arm... 
Left arm.... 
Righ t leg.... 

1 15 0 

1 15 0 

1 15 0 

Right foot... 

Lefitleg. 

Two fingers.. 


To Hon. A. L. Ilerdman, the minister in charge of the returned 
soldiers’ information department, I am indebted for the information 
and documentary material on which this memorandum is based. 































■*; 






. • . 


\ 


































• • ■ 






I 
















































































. . .. 


- - * W WR* 1 

f 








. • *. 












• . • 




PART III. 


THE SIZE OF THE PROBLEM. 

Some Factors to be Taken into Consideration in Estimating 
the Number that will Require Vocational Reeducation. 

Any estimate of the number of men returning disabled and of the 
number requiring vocational reeducation must be based upon certain 
assumptions regarding the duration of the war, the number of men 
maintained at the front, and the proportion of casualties. 

Obviously no forecast of the progress of the war can be made, and, 
obviously, the ratio of casualties to men mobilized may increase or 
decrease in the coming years. 

In France the ratio of casualties was highest during the opening 
period of the war, in which the battles of Charleroi and the Marne 
were fought. In each six months of the years 1915 and 1916 the ratio 
of casualties to men mobilized in the French Army declined from 
2.39 per cent in the first six months of 1915, to 1.68 per cent in the 
six months following, to 1.47 per cent in the first half of 1916, and to 
1.28 per cent in the latter half of that year. 

It would be unsafe to assume that this decline in the ratio will con¬ 
tinue. It is entirely conceivable that developments and changes dur¬ 
ing the coming years will produce on the contrary much higher ratios. 

It appeal’s that the killed in action and died of wounds have not 
exceeded one-fifth of the total casualties. Approximately four-fifths, 
therefore, survive. Some among these recover completely, develop¬ 
ing 100 per cent of their former vocational efficiency; some recover 
partial efficiency in their old employment; some are incapacitated 
totally for their old employment but are capable of greater or less 
efficiency in other employments, provided they be given the voca¬ 
tional training required to overcome their specific handicap; some are 
totally incapable of any sort of vocational training or activity.. 

It should be borne in mind that, in accordance with present prac¬ 
tice in the military hospitals of Europe—as of some hospitals in this 
country—vocational training begins during the period of conva¬ 
lescence, in a curative workshop attached to the hospital. Such 
training, described technically as “ occupational therapy,” is not 
reserved for men who will eventually develop vocational capacity 
insuring economic independence in the competitive labor market. 
It has become a recognized part of therapeutic treatment. In a 
report of the military hospitals commission of Canada, made in May, 
1917, it is noted that while it had been thought that a majority of 
the men returned from the war “ would require rest and recreation,” 
it was found, by experience, that what they did in fact require was 
“active therapeutic and orthopaedic treatment.” 

42297°—S. Doc. 166, 65-2-5 


65 


66 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

In providing this active treatment along occupational lines the 
vocational expert cooperates with the physician to achieve the con¬ 
valescence of the patient. In this field vocational training is given 
as therapeutic discipline, and is not necessarily, though it should be 
generally related as far as possible to the subsequent vocational 
career of the patient. 

For some men the vocational training will terminate when they 
are discharged from the hospital cured. For others the vocational 
training initiated during convalescence will necessarily be continued 
after that period, or some new line of training will be initiated. In 
these cases a longer or shorter period of intensive vocational training 
will follow convalescence. 

When the statement is made that 4, 5, or 10 per cent of the men 
disabled will require vocational reeducation, the proportion relates 
to those men disabled for further military service, and returned 
therefore, to civil employments. 

While, however, the proportion requiring vocational reeducation 
is relative to the number of disabled and invalided men, this propor¬ 
tion itself may be very materially affected by the policy of rehabili¬ 
tation adopted. 

If every sort of training is provided that can be given with material 
benefit to disabled men, the proportion of cases for vocational reedu¬ 
cation will be much higher than if a policy is adopted of undertaking 
vocational training only where such training is obviously essential 
and unavoidable if the man is to acquire any sort of wage-earning 
capacity. In a word, the proportion of cases for vocational training 
will be relatively large or small according as the provision for voca¬ 
tional reeducation is ample and complete or partial and special, being 
restricted in the latter case to a minimum of cases and to a small 
number of vocations. 

Capability for vocational reeducation is in no case an absolute and 
definite capacity which may be accurately measured with reference 
to individuals. Most disabled men will be more or less capable of 
special training and the number actually trained will depend upon 
the educational f acilities created. 

A small proportion of the men returned will be totally disabled; 
incapable, therefore, of benfiting in any degree from any sort of 
training. A larger proportion, perhaps four-fifths, will be entirely 
able to reenter their former occupations without any training. Some 
will be helped materially by systematic reeducation in their old em¬ 
ployment to overcome special handicaps, some will require training 
in absolutely new employments, some—including, for example, men 
who have contracted tuberculosis, where the former occupation 
would subject them to unfavorable conditions—may be greatly ben¬ 
efited by training for some other employment in which their handicap 
will be less serious. 

It need not be assumed that conditions will suddenly develop in 
the United States corresponding to those which now obtain in 
Europe—in Germany, for example, where it is reported, 500,000 
men are constantly under treatment in hospitals, the number of leg 
amputations alone in 1916 being 16,000; or in France, where accord¬ 
ing to figures published by the national office for disabled soldiers, 
6,000 or 7,000 soldiers are newly pensioned, discharged, or disabled 
each month; or in any other of the European countries which now 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 67 

report an aggregate of 13,000,000 wounded and disabled men. But 
conditions similar to these—which are the immediate consequence 
of oidv three years of war, may very well develop in this country if 
the war continues for another period of three years—and even 
worse conditions are easily within the range of possibility. 

Experience in European belligerent countries during the past three 
years can not be accepted as establishing, with any considerable 
degree of certainty, disability ratios for the future in the fighting 
forces either of these countries themselves, or in the overseas forces 
of the Lnited States. But higher as well as lower casualty and 
disability ratios are conceivable, and even with much lower ratios, 
the problem.confronting the United States is sufficiently serious. 

Some inferences may be drawn from Canadian experience, always 
with the reservation that the margin of error in these inferences, so 
far as regards future developments in the United States, may be 
very large. 

The following table (Table 1), showing the number of disabled 
men returned to Canada monthly, is reproduced from the report of 
the Canadian military hospitals commission (May, 1017). It in¬ 
cludes only the men whose records had up to March 31, 1917, been 
analyzed, and it is to be noted, further, that only the more seriously 
disabled men have been returned to Canada. 


Table 1. —Number of men returned to Canada by months. 


Month. 

1915 

1916 

1917 

Month. 

1915 

1916 

1917 

January. 

64 

150 

1,569 

i August. 

93 

509 


’Fohrnarv. 

(i) 

182 

868 

! September. 

226 

636 


March. 

(i) 

343 

2,151 

October. 

703 

1,551 


April. 

0) 

396 

1 November. 

977 

1,010 


May. 

47 

476 


December. 

228 

784 


June. 

36 

278 


No record. 

139 

16 


July. 

96 

268 







Total Jan. 1,1915, to Mar. 31,1917.A. 13,326. 

1 No record. 


In Table 2 these men are classified according to the degree of 
disability awarded by the medical board at the port of their disem¬ 
barkation. 


Table 2. —Returned men classified according to the degree of their disability. 


Degree of disability. 

Men. 

Distri¬ 

bution. 

Degree of disability. 

Men. 

Distri¬ 

bution. 

Total men returned. 

Disability: 

0-25 percent. 

26-50 per cent. 

Number. 

13,826 

7,418 

2,923 

Per cent. 
100.00 

53.65 

21.14 

Disability—Continued. 

51-75 per cent.. 

79-100 per cent. 

No record. 

Number. 

927 

1,975 

5S3 

Per cent. 
6. 71 
14.28 
4.22 






















































68 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


Recent figures covering Canadian experience are given in the 
following statement: 

Total number returned to date, Oct. 31,1917, approximate, all classes, includ¬ 


ing undesirables, etc. 26, Q00 

Total Canadian blind in England and returned. 32 

Total amputations among men returned: 

Legs. 632 

Arms. 285 


In 4,000 cases surveyed recently the number found to be nervous and mental cases 


was 400, or 10 per cent. 

Of these 400— 

60 per cent were suffering from nervous troubles. 240 

25 per cent were mental cases. 100 

15 per cent were epileptic. 60 

Number of total insane to date. 273 

Total number of patients in hospitals, etc.: 

On Mar. 31, 1916. 1,305 

On Sept. 30, 1916. 1,877 

On Mar. 31, 1917. 4, 880 

On Oct. 31, 1917. 10,199 


The number of invalided men on the strength of the Canadian military hospitals 
commission was 6,515 on May 8, 1917, having increased from 2,365 on December 31, 
1916. 

In November, 1917, the vocational branch of the commission had interviewed 
3,756 cases, had surveyed vocationally 1,766 cases, and had approved courses for 
1,452 cases. The number taking current courses of vocational training was approxi¬ 
mately 1,200. 

The disposition of the cases surveyed was as follows: 

Total surveyed. 1,766 


Pending information. 108 

Pending result of treatment. 30 

Noneligible cases. 176 

Courses approved. 1,452 


The latest report of Canadian experience 1 states that approx¬ 
imately 10 per cent of the Canadian forces overseas, 29,800 out of 
300,000, have been returned as unfit for military service; approx¬ 
imately one-third of these, 9,000 out of the 29,800, being in the 
hospitals at one time. 

Of the men returned unfit for military service, 80 per cent, or 
four-fifths, return to their former occupations without vocational 
training or are incapable of such training, and 20 per cent require 
vocational training. One-half of those requiring vocational train¬ 
ing—i. e., 10 per cent of those returned unfit for military service— 
require complete vocational reeducation, and one-half partial voca¬ 
tional reeducation. 

That is to say, Canadian experience to date indicates that with 
300,000 men overseas 6,000 men have been returned unfit for military 
service and requiring complete or partial vocational reeducation. This 
number does not represent 300,000 men at the front for the whole 
period of the war, since the number of men at the front has been 
only gradually brought up to 300,000 during the period of the war, 
there being comparatively few Canadians in the trenches at the 
outset. 

Accepting these ratios as significant for the over-seas forces of the 
United States, and assuming that the United States will send over 


1 Report of F. .13. Magbuson to Mr. Samuel Insull, State counsel of national defense of Illinois. 





















VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 69 

1,000,000 men the first year, and will increase its expeditionary force 
by 1,000,000 each year for the duration of the war, the following 
deductions are, perhaps, warranted, as forecasting conditions at the 
close of one year of fighting. 


Number of men overseas. 1,000,000 

Number of men returned unfit for military service. 100,000 

Number not requiring vocational reeducation. 80,000 

Number requiring vocational reeducation: 

Complete. 10,000 

Partial. 10,000 


In a word, for each million men overseas it may, perhaps, fairly be 
expected that 100,000 men will be returned each year, of whom 20,000 
will require complete or partial vocational reeducation. This number 
of men may in fact be in hand to be provided for by the close of the 
summer campaign of 1918. 

But long before the close of activities in the summer of 1918 the 
return of men will begin, and vocational reeducation must start with 
the first men sent back, and must be developed as the number of men 
in hand for training increases. The development of facilities for 
undertaking vocational reeducation must, in fact, anticipate the 
return of the men, since adequate provision can not be improvised 
after the men are actually in hand for training. 

As regards numbers to be vocationally reeducated, Canadian expe¬ 
rience would appear to indicate 20,000 for the first year, 40,000 
additional for the second year, and 60,000 additional for the third 
year, and aggregate for three years of war of 120,000 men. 

Immediate provision should be made for the training during 1918 
of at least 20,000 men. In the second year of fighting, on the above 
assumption, the discharges from the military hospitals will provide 
each month between 3,000 and 4,000 candidates for vocational 
training, and in each month of the third year of the fighting approxi¬ 
mately 5,000 candidates. 

If the vocational training course averages six months per man, 
the number of men actually in training may be roughly estimated 
to be 10,000 at the close of one year of fighting, 20,000 at the close 
of the second year, and 30,000 at the close of the third year. 

The training and organization of a staff of teachers for this work 
will constitute a large factor in the problem of vocational education. 

It should be notcxl, however, that the above calculation is based 
upon rather meager accounts of Canadian experience, and that pro¬ 
portions as low as 4 or 5 per cent of the disabled men returned have 
been indicated as the proportion of men requiring vocational re¬ 
education. If this range of estimate is taken into account, the 
number of men requiring vocational reeducation during the first year 
of the war may fall as low as 4,000 or 5,000 per million men overseas. 
But, on the other hand, as has been noted, experience in past years 
of the war does not necessarily measure the maximum possibility of 
casualties, nor does it necessarily measure the maximum provision 
for vocational reeducation either in Canada or in any European 
country. It is highly probable that in very many instances voca¬ 
tional reeducation has not been undertaken where such training 
would be of real value to the disabled man, and would in fact be 
economically advantageous to the community. 







70 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


In the fiscal year 1916-17 the expenses of the vocational branch of 
the Canadian hospitals commission, including cost of maintenance 
of men undergoing reeducation, amounted to $63,669.99 out of total 
disbursements by the commission in the same period of $1,484,048.90. 

Maintenance is provided for the men and their dependents during 
the period of their vocational reeducation. 

The following paragraphs, quoted from the report of the Canadian 
military hospitals commission, indicate briefly the steps which have 
been taken in Canada for the vocational rehabilitation of returned 
men, and indicate by inference the dimensions of the problem 
immediately confronting the United States. 

One of the problems taken up in the early stages of the commission’s work was the 
provision of vocational training for the men in the hospitals, and reeducation for those 
unable to follow their previous occupations after discharge. It was realized that this 
was a most complex problem. No precedents were available to guide the commission, 
although it was known that a great deal of work was under way in France along these 
lines, and reports had been received from Dr. Bourillon and others, but these did not 
appear to fit the situation in Canada. The director of technical education for Nova 
Scotia, now vocational officer for the commission for the Maritime Provinces and 
Quebec, also prepared a valuable report. It was found that vocational training in the 
hospitals was necessary not only because of its educational value but because of its 
therapeutic value. Men who are occupied recover more quicklythan those who are 
idle. The disability of a soldier in a hospital naturally preys on his mind and self-pity 
grows in him. Some men also have the feeling that having suffered for their country 
they should not be required to exert themselves for their livelihood, but that the country 
owes them a livelihood. This is only partially true. What the country owes to these 
men is an opportunity to obtain a livelihood. The problem, therefore, which pre¬ 
sented itself w as how to raise the disabled again and to alleviate their lot by restoring 
to them that joy of life which comes from the feeling of renewed capacity to work and of 
mastery over themselves and their disabilities. 

The work was commenced actively by the appointment of a vocational secretary 
in January, 1916. It -was at the beginning largely experimental. One of the first 
things undertaken, therefore, was a survey, at widely separate parts of Canada, of 
typical groups of patients in the convalescent hospitals. Amongst other facts ascer¬ 
tained was the cheering one that the proportion of men who were so disabled as not 
to be able to return to their previous occupations was comparatively small. Since 
then figures have been obtained from France where this proportion is stated to be less 
than 1 per cent of the wounded. It is not possible yet to give any definite percentage 
for the men in Canada, but as only the more seriously disabled have been returned so 
far, the percentage will probably be higher than that in France, which covers appar¬ 
ently the wdiole of the wounded. 

At the commencement of the work in the hospitals, classes in general subjects 
were established, in which those who desired to do so might brush up their education 
or take up new subjects. One of the earliest classes to be opened was for the teaching 
of English to foreign-born members of the Canadian expeditionary force, of whom a 
number had been returned. More from a recreative than from the vocational point 
of view, instruction in the simple work of the arts and crafts was also introduced. 
This work often involved drafting and led to the installation of apparatus for and 
instruction in mechanical and architectural drawing. In practically every center 
the classes in general subjects soon developed a distinct commercial side in which 
shorthand, typewriting, bookkeeping,. and related branches are taught. There is 
a considerable demand for male help in these lines, and men slightly disabled have 
been able to qualify for clerical positions in this way. Thanks to the cooperation of 
the civil-service commissioners, classes to prepare men for civil-service examinations 
have been organized at several of the principal centers. Examinations were held in 
September, 1916, when 11 passed; in December, 1916, when 45 passed; and in March, 
1917, when 140 passed. These were for the lower-grade inside sendee. A number 
of men are preparing for the second-grade examination in May. 

* * * * * * * * 

The outdoor work, gardening, poultry keeping, etc., has been most successful and 
is being introduced in every center where the conditions permit. As in the arts and 
crafts work, the poultry work and gardening are made as practical as possible, the 
products being sold and the profits applied to the extension of the work and for the 
benefit of the men engaged in it. In Winnipeg between $800 and $900 worth of poul- 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 71 


try and garden produce was raised by the patients at the local convalescent hospital 
during last summer. Egg circles have been formed in connection with the poultry 
classes at several hospitals. 

The whole of this work forms part of the daily routine of the hospitals. After 
breakfast and morning fatigue duties are over, a regular program is followed from 
9 to 12.30 and, after dinner, from 2 to 4.15. 

******* 

The question as to what new occupations a disabled man might be trained for is 
first of all a medical one, though it is largely one for a vocational counselor, a man 
well versed in a knowledge of the methods of various industries and of the training 
necessary for those who desire to pursue them. But further, and this is an important 
consideration, it is an economic question, touching the law of supply and demand. 
While there are a number of occupations for which it is not difficult to train men, 
it does not follow that employment can readily be obtained in them. Last, but by 
no means least, the man’s own wishes and desires for his future must be consulted. 
The question, therefore, is an individual one, and every case is investigated separately. 
The decision as to the occupation for wliich an opportunity of being trained is to be 
offered a man, is made in the light of the medical, technical, economic, and personal 
factors of his case. The commission has established a complete organization for carry¬ 
ing out examination and for determining what reeducation, if any, should be given 
to the discharged men. 

******* 

One difficulty with which the commission has been confronted is that of finding 
suitable instructors. The supply of these men in Canada, skilled in vocational and 
industrial training, was all too limited before the war. Further, a number have gone 
overseas, and the commission has found it necessary in several instances to take them 
from the combatant ranks to serve as instructors at home. Also, and this will probably 
increase, disabled men are being engaged as instructors whenever available. The 
commission regards the work of vocational training and reeducation as only in its 
infancy and there will, undoubtedly, be a considerable development as time goes 
on and men realize the advantages offered. 

******* 

One of the first things recognized by the commission in 1915 was the necessity 
for the creation of machinery for introducing returned men to employment and a 
large amount of consideration was given to this problem. It was recognized that this 
was primarily a provincial matter and it was, therefore decided to request the Govern¬ 
ment to call an interprovincial conference in order that a definite scheme of organi¬ 
zation might be discussed and, if approved, promulgated. At the instance of the 
president of the commission a report was prepared by the secretary containing certain 
recommendations for submission to this conference. The report was published as a 
sessional paper in October, 1915 (No. 35a). 



PART IV. 

OUTLINE FOR AN EXHAUSTIVE STUDY AND REPORT 


Vocational Reeducation and Placement of Disabled Soldiers 

and Sailors. 

I. The size of the 'problem—Approximate number of men returned disabled each year 
per million men on the firing line. 

A. Classified according to disabilities. 

13. Classified according to their previous occupations. 

C. Classified provisionally according to their vocational capacities as handicapped 
men: 

1. The number available to enter immediately upon wage-earning occupa¬ 

tions without vocational reeducation. 

2. Probable numbers to be returned to agriculture, industry, commerce, and 

the professions— 

(a) Before vocational reeducation. 

(b) After vocational reeducation. 

3. Probable number unable to compete under normal labor conditions. 

4. The totally incapacitated for any vocation. 

II. Economic and ethical issues. 

A. Reasons why vocational rehabilitation of disabled soldiers and sailors should bo 

undertaken. 

B. Public versus private resources. 

C. Public versus private administration. 

D. National versus State administration. 

E. Military versus no military discipline. 

P. Principles underlying cooperation with the States and municipalities. 

G. Principles underlying cooperation with private agencies. 

H. Modifications of national and State laws and of rules and policies of State com¬ 

pensation commissions necessary in order to provide properly for the placing 
of handicapped men. 

III. Finances. 

A. National appropriation. 

1. By Congress. 

( (i) Lump sura. 

(6) Per capita per man handicapped. 

B. Appropriation by other public agencies. 

1. States. 

2. Municipalities. 

C. Appropriation by private and semipublic agencies. 

1. Red Cross. 

2. Private foundations. 

3. Individuals. 

4. Corporations. 

5. Trade-unions. 

6. Fraternal organizations. 

7. Farmers’ unions, granges, etc. 

8. Institutions, such as hospitals, schools, etc. 

D. Foreign experience in regard to financing the problem. 


73 


74 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


IV. Administrative 'problems. 

A. Existing Federal agencies of administration, such as War Department, Navy 

Department, and Federal Board for Vocational Education. 

B. Possible new agencies. 

C. Extension of period of military service during period of vocational reeducation; 

or reenlistment for such training. 

D. Discharge from military discipline and supervision after release. 

E. Legislation necessary. 

V. Cooperation. 

A. Agencies of cooperation. 

1. Federal agencies with Federal agencies; e. g., Federal departments, board, 

or bureau with military authorities as regards registration and personal 
survey of all men received and discharged and in the provision of 
therapeutic and other occupations training in convalescent hospitals; 
Federal board with Departments of Agriculture, Labor, and Commerce 
with regard to the vocational reeducation of disabled soldiers and 
sailors. 

2. Federal agencies with State agencies; e. g., in vocational reeducation in 

State schools and institutions and in placement of men vocationally 
rehabilitated. 

3. Federal agencies with municipal agencies; e. g., in vocational reeducation 

in city schools and institutions and in placement of men vocationally 
rehabilitated. 

4. Federal agencies with semipublic institutions, such as the Red Cross, 

e. g., in relief work for those unable to compete. 

5. Federal agencies with private institutions and foundations, e. g., dispo¬ 

sition and treatment of permanently invalided. 

6. Federal agencies with social agencies, e. g., in social rehabilitation and 

follow-up work. 

7. Federal agencies with individual employers and corporations, e. g., in 

providing reeducation and employment for rehabilitated men. 

8. Federal agencies with organized employers, such as the National Manu¬ 

facturers Association, e. g., in adaptation of machinery, devices, and 
tools, and in the enforcement of the determination of wage boards, etc. 

9. Federal agencies with organized employes, such as the American Federa¬ 

tion of Labor, e. g., admission of partially disabled men to industrial 
establishments, both for reeducation and later permanent employment, 
enforcement of determinations of wage boards, etc. 

10. Federal agencies with established schools, e. g.. assisting in the prepara¬ 

tion of the special type of instructor required, in teacher training, and 
in vocational reeducation. 

11. Federal agencies with established hospitals, e. g., cooperation in occu¬ 

pational therapy and orthopedic treatment. 

B. Foreign experience in cooperation. 

VI. Stages in rehabilitation. 

A. Functional reeducation, direction of Medical Department. 

1. Vocational expert present at functional tests. (See Purposes and results 

of tests.) 

2. Occupational therapy or preparatory vocational reeducation under physi¬ 

cian’s instructions. 

B. Orthopedic system, direction of Medical Department. 

1. Consultation with vocational expert necessary to determine kind, type, 

and purpose of prosthetic appliance. (See prosthetic appliances, 
necessity for cooperation of vocational expert.) 

2. Occupational therapy or training preparatory to vocational reeducation 

under physician’s instructions. 

C. Vocational education, direction of Vocational Department. 

1. Continued coordination with Medical Department as occasioned. 

D. Placement, direction of Vocational Department. 

1. Cooperation of manufacturers, trade-unions, etc. 

E. Follow work, direction of social agencies either established by or instructed by and 

reporting to Vocational Department. 


VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 75 

VII. Curative U'orhshop. 

A. Vocational expert’s advice when tests and choice of prosthetic appliances are being 

made by physician. 

1. Purposes of tests. 

(а) To determine capacity of the stump for reeducation. 

(б) To determine the amount of power in the stump by laboratory 

experiments with the use of arthrodynamometers. ergometric 
cycle, chirographs, and dynamographs. 

(<f) To determine condition of senses (sight, touch, hearingi. 

(d ) To determine condition of heart, lungs, and nerve centers, 

including test to measure respiratory changes as indicating 
degree of fatigue. 

(e) To determine reflexes, speed of reactions, and coordinations. 

2. Results of tests 

(a) Determination of the proportion among the maimed and muti¬ 

lated capable of reeducation. 

( b ) Vocational expert’s advice for many other serious disabilities, 

often of a medical nature. 

B. Service of vocational expert in occupational therapy. 

1. In the selection of appropriate occupational opportunities. 

2. In the preparation of courses of instruction. 

3. In devising methods of instruction. 

4. In the selection of instructors. 

C. Service of vocational expert in instruction or training preparatory to vocational 

reeducation. 

1. In the selection of appropriate courses, both as occupational tests and as 

preparatory work. 

2. In the preparation of courses of instruction. 

3. In devising methods of instruction. 

4. In the selection of instructors. 

D. Provision for general education. 

E. Relation of curative workshop training to vocational reeducation for new or old 

occupation selected for a disabled man. 

VIII. Vocational training. 

A. The direction in consultation with medical department toward an occupation. 

B. Occupational possibilities of types of disabled men in terms of the requirements of— 

1. Agricultural occupations. 

2. Commercial occupations. 

3. Industrial occupations. v 

4. Nautical occupations. 

5. Technical occupations. 

G. Professional occupations, etc. 

C. The formulation of courses of instruction for the preparation of disabled men for 

service in new and old occupations. 

D. Provision for general education. 

E. General improvement classes during convalescence. 

F. Cooperation— 

1. With existing trade, technical, agricultural, commercial, and professional 

and other schools. 

2. With commerce, industry, and agriculture. 

G. Provision for further training if such is recommended after a man’s military 

discharge. 


IX. Functioning of the vocational expert. 

A. With reference to men disabled for service. Able to return to former work or 

work for which they need no vocational reeducation. 

1. Placement, provided former position not open or possible. 

B. With reference to men in need of further medical treatment. Upon discharge 

will be able to follow former occupation or take up new without vocational 
reeducation. 

1. Occupational therapy. 

2. Placement. 



76 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS, 


C. With reference to non in need of no further medical treatment, but unable to 

follow former occupation and requiring to take up new vocation. 

1. Vocational reeducation. 

2. Placement. 

D. With reference to men in need of further medical treatment and new vocation. 

1. Occupational therapy or training preparatory to vocational reeducation. 

2. Vocational reeducation. 

3. Placement. 

E. With reference to men in need of permanent medical supervision or unable to 

compete in any regular vocation. Not totally disabled for special and limited 
work. 

1. Occupational therapy until cured as far as possible. 

2. Placement in workshop especially provided for this class. 

F. With reference to men totally disabled for any kind or degree of work. 

(It is considered that this class should be cared for exclusively by the medical 
department.) 

X. Placement. 

A. National central administrative office of placement. 

B. Cooperation of Federal and State employment offices. 

C. Cooperation with private aid for placement. 

I). Cooperation with organized labor. 

E. Cooperation with employers. 

F. Advisory wage agreement boards to provide permanently for handicapped men 

and reexamine men for efficiency as required. 

1. To prevent exploitation of Handicapped workers. 

2. To prevent failure of handicapped men to compete or retain positions 

after vocational reeducation. 

G. Reservation of work for specific disabilities in Government offices, factories, and 

stores. 

XI. Continuous registration and follow-up ivorh. 

A. Maintenance of wage agreement. 

B. Provision for unemployed. 

C. Relief. 

D. Maintenance of special workshop for those unable to compete. 

E. Provisions for reenlistments or otherwise for training. 

F. Provision of further medical treatment in military hospitals in recurrent cases. 

G. Social rehabilitation. 


PART V. 

A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE WAR CRIPPLE.' 

A l’l^cole d’horlogerie de Cluses. Journal des Mutiles, Reformes et Blesses de Guerre 
Paris, 1917, no. 20, p. 4. 

Abigt, Emil. Heimstatten fur Krieger: Offiziere und Mannschaften. Ileimkultur— 
Deutsche.Kultur, Stuttgart, 1917. 

Ach, N. Uber die Werkstattenbehandlung und die eonstige Beschaftigung der 
Knegsbescadigten. Miinchen, 1916. 

Addison, C. Restoration and reconstruction. War Pensions Gazette, London, 1917, 
i, 93-94. 

Address to discharged soldiers at a discharge centre. War Pensions Gazette, London, 
1917, i, 80-81. 

Aid for the war cripples of France. American Journal of Care for Cripples, New 
York, 1916, iii, 44-45. 

“Aide et Protection.” (Soci6te Nationale de Secours Mutuels entre tous les Mutiles 
et Blesses Reformes de Guerre.) Paris. Bulletin Mensuel, no. 15, July, 1917. 

- Bulletin Mensuel, no. 18, October, 1917. 

-- Mutiles! R6form6s! Unissons-nous! Groupons-nous! Adh5rcz tous 

PAide et Protection. Extrait des statuts. n. d. 

— -- Statuts et r&glement general interieur. n. d. 

Aide (P) immediat aux Invalides et Reformes de la Guerre. La Formation Pro- 
fessionnelle, Paris, 1916. 13 e ann4e, no. 9, p. 72-73. 

Alden, Percy. What France is doing for her disabled soldiers and sailors. Progress, 
London, 1917, xii, 1-26. 

Alfassa, Maurice. L’emploi en industrie et en agriculture des blesses et mutiles de 
guerre et la loi 6ur les accidents. Le Correspondant, Paris, 1915, lxxxvii, 243-256. 

- Notes 6conomiques. Sur diverses propositions legislatives relatives aux 

mutiles de la guerre. Bulletin de la Soci6t6 d’Encouragement pour l’lndustrie 
Nationale, Paris, 1916, cxxv, 366. 

Allevi, Giovanni. L’Assistenza sanitaria in guerra. La SanitA Militare, la Croce 
Rossa, la Croce di Malta, la rieducazione dei mutilati. Firenze, [19161. 

Amar, Jules. Appareils de prothese du membre sup&rieur. Acad4mie des Sciences, 
Comptes rendus, Paris, 1916, clxii, 401-405. 

- Care of the wounded in France; methods and instruments for aiding men 

who have lost hands or arms. Scientific American Supplement, New York, 1916, 
lxxxii, 348-350. 

- La proth&se et le travail des mutiles. Conference faite pour les oeuvres de 

mutiles, le 12 janvier 1916. Paris, 1916. 

-- La reeducation des blesses et mutiles de la guerre. Revue Scientifique, 

Paris, 1916, liv, 363-367. 

- La reeducation professionnelle des blesses et des mutiles de la guerre. Journal 

de Physiologie et de Pathologie Generale, Paris, 1915. xvi, 821-836. 

— -- La reeducation professionnelle des mutiles de guerre. Bulletin de la Societd 

d’Encouragement pour l’lndustrie Nationale, Paris, 1917, cxxvii, 94-124. 

- Organisation de Papprentissage des estropies de la guerre. (Travail du 

Laboratoire des recherches du Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers.) Paris, 
191.5. 

- Organisation physiologique du travail. Paris, 1917. 

- Organization of the training of the disabled. Military Hospitals Commission, 

Special Bulletin, Ottawa, 1916, p. 29-50. 

--Organization of vocational training for war cripples. American Journal of 

Care for Cripples, New York, 1916, iii, 176-183. 


iCompiled by Douglas C. McMurtrie, of the Red Cross Institute for Crippled and Disabled Men. 

77 















78 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


Amar, Jules. Re-education of members partly amputated. Scientific American 
Supplement, New York, 1917, lxxxiii, 101. 

-- Technique d’6ducation sensitive pour amput6s et aveugles. Academie de 

Paris, Compte rendu, Paris, 1916, clxiii, 335-338. 

American Type Founders Company, Jersey City, N. J. Information regarding the 
possibilities of printing as an occupation for disabled soldiers. [1917.] 

American (the) war cripple. American Journal of Care for Cripples, New York, 1917, 
v. 213. 

An die Kriegsbeschadigten. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1916, i, no. 19. 

An die Kriegsverletzten. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1915, i, no. 14. 

An die kriegsverletzten Handwerker! Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1915, i, no. 12. 
Andt, R. Weihnachten vor der Tiir! Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1916, ii, no. 9. 

Describes and illustrates products of crippled workers.. 

Anspruch (der) der Offiziere auf Lieferung von Ersatzgliedern, Stiitzapparaten usw. 

sowie auf orthopadisches Schuhzeug. Deutscher Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 65-66. 
Anspriiche der invaliden Kriegsteilnehmer aus der reichsgesetzlichen Invalidenver- 
sicherung. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1915, i, no. 1. 

Appareil pour les blesses. Le Courier du Livre, Paris, 1917, xix, 1311. 

Appelius. Streben nach Rente nicht das hochste Ziel des Kriegsverletzten. Lii- 
becker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1916, ii, no. 6. 

Arbeiterschaft und Kriegsbeschadigtenfiirsorge. Soziale Praxis, Leipzig, 1915, xxiv, 
1080-1082. 

Arbeitsgeber und Kriegsbeschadigte. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1915, i, no. 14. 
Arbeitsgemeinschaften der Kriegsbeschadigtenfiirsorge. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung 
1916,"ii, no. 5. 

Arends. Arbeitsvermittlung fiir Kriippel. Zeitschrift fur Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 
1914, vii, 202-207. 

—-- Der Kriippel als Handwerker. Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 

1914, vii, 186-202. 

Armlose (der) als Invalidentroster. Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, 
ix, 275-276. 

Army and Navy Pensioners’ and Time-Expired Men’s Employment Society. London. 
Annual report, 1917. 

Arnozan, X. L’Ecole de reeducation professionnelle et les oeuvres d’assistance pour 
les mutiles a Bordeaux. Journal de Medecine de Bordeaux, 1916, ixxxvii, 139-141. 
Art (P) et la Femme. Numero special illustre de ses oeuvres de guerre, et speciale- 
ment de son atelier de mutiles; Juin 1916. Paris, 1916. 

Association (P) nationale [des mutiles de la guerre]. Journal des Mutiles, Reformes 
et Blesses de Guerre, Paris, 1916, no. 3, p. 3. 

Association des (Euvres de la Croix Verte. Paris. Compte rendu de l’assemblee 
generale statutaire du 29 mai 1915. 

-Compte rendu de l’assemblee generale statutaire du 30 juin 1916. 

-Compte rendu de l’assemblee generale statutaire du 4 juin 1917. 

Association Parisienne d’assistance aux Mutiles. Paris. Statuts. [1917.] 
Association pour l’Assistance aux Mutiles Pauvres. Paris. Rapport sur les travaux 
et la situation de Poeuvre. February, 1917. 

Auer, E. Kriegsinvalide als Staatsarbeiter. Pfalzische Post, Ludwigshafen a. R., 
August 30, 1917. 

Aus dem Arbeitsgebiet der Kriegsverletztenfiirsorge. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 

1915, i, no. 6. 

Aus der Arbeit—fur die Arbeit. 1. Ertuchtigungsspiele der Kriegskriippel. Monats- 
blatter fiir Invaliden- und Kriippelhilfe, Leipzig, 1915, i, 19-22. 

Aus der Arbeit—fur die Arbeit. 2. Lazarett-beschaftigung. Monatsblatter fiir In¬ 
validen- und Kriippelhilfe, Leipzig, 1915, i, 42-44. 

Ausbildung von kriegsverletzten Offizieren zu Leitern von Arbeitsnachweisen. 

Deutscher Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 222. 

Ausbildung kriegsverletzter Gartner. Deutscher Hilfsbund. Berlin, 1917, ii, 208. 
Ausbildungsfragen. Ausbildung kriegsverletzter Offiziere fiir stadtische Betriebe 
(Gasingenieure). Deutscher Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 208. 

Ausbildungsfragen. Hochschulkurse fin- Kriegsbeschadigte an der Technischen 
Hochschule in Danzig. Deutscher Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 193. 
Ausbildungsfragen. Lehrgang fiir kriegsbeschadigte Offiziere, Unteroffiziere und 
Mannschaften. Deutscher Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 181. 

Ausbildungsfragen. Vorbereitung zur Kriegsreisepriifung. 1. In Berlin. 2. In 
Frankfurt a. M. Deutscher Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 169. 

Ausstellung fur Kriegsfursorge, Koln, 1916. Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 

1916, ix, 343—346. 






VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 79 


Australia. Parliament. War Committee. The war. Returned soldiers; recom¬ 
mendations * * * re-employment. Melbourne. 1915. 

Austrian provision for war cripples. American Journal of Care for Cripples, New York, 

1915, ii, 47-48. 

Bachmaier, Roman. Programm und Organisation einer Heilschule fiir Kriegs¬ 
beschadigte. Padagogisch.es aus der Knegsverwundetenfiirsorge. Halle a. S., 

1916. 

Back to the land from the trenches. Survey, New York, 1916, xxxvi, 327-328. 

B&ckh&usen. Kriegsbeschadigte als Erzieher in Fiirsorgeerziehungsanstalten. 
Amtliche Mitteilungen fiir kriegsbeschadigte oder versorgungsberechtigte Militiir- 
personen und fiir Hinterbliebene von Heeresangehorigen, Berlin, 1917, i, 1-3. 

Bade. Peter. Die Behandlung der Kriegsverwundeten im Kriippelheim ‘Annastift.’ 
Hannover. Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 49-54. 

- Kann unsere Rasse durch erworbenes Kriippeltum geschiidigt werden? 

Monatsblatter fiir Invaliden- und Kriippelhilfe, Leipzig, 1915, i, 28-31. 

Bader. Kurzer Bericht iiber die bisherigen Leistungen der Kriegsbeschadigten- 
fiirsorge in Bayern. Zeitschrift fur Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 172-174. 

Baehr, Ludwig. “Du bist verwundet?” Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1916, ii. no. 6. 

von Baeyer. Die orthopadische Nachbehandlung von Kriegsverletzten. Zeitschrift 
fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig u. Hamburg, 1915, viii, 59-62. 

Bailliere, G. J.-B. La responsabilite des oeuvres de reeducation des mutiles de guerre 
au point de vue des accidents. Annales d’Hygiene Publique et de M&iecine 
Legale, Paris, 1917, xxvii, 190-192. 

Balz. Andr6. Les mutiles et l’instruction publique. Journal des Mutiles. R£formes 
et Blesses de Guerre. Paris, 1917, no. 15, p. 7-8. 

Bangert, Karl E. Spiel und Ernst in der Lazarettbeschaftigung. Zeitschrift fiir 
Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 26-32. 

Barres, Maurice, and Louis Barthou, Frederic Masson, Hebrard de Yilleneuve, and 
others. La Federation Nationale d’Assistance aux Mutiles des Armees de Terre 
et de Mer. Paris, 1917. 

Barton, George Edward. Re-education; an analysis of the institutional system of 
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di propaganda tenuta nei principali centri del Piemonte. Torino, 1916. 

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Bavrische Kriegsinvalidenfursorge. Korrespondenz fur Kriegswohliahrtspfiege 
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Bedeutung (die) der Werkstattbeschaftigung fiir Kriegsinvalide. Liibecker Lazarett 
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Beer, Berthold,. Entkruppelungsstellen. Zur Heilung scheinbar dauernd Yer 
kriippelter. Osterreichisclie Rundschau, Wien, 1914, xli, 243-248. 

Beitrage zur Frage der Austriistung armverletzter Kriegsbeschadigter furs Erwerbs 
leben. Verein zur Beforderung des Gewerbleisses, \'erhandlungen, Berlin, 1916 

Belgian institute for disabled soldiers at Vernon. British Medical Journal, London 

Belgian scheme for disabled soldiers. British Medical Journal, London, 1916, II, 236 

Belgian school for the mutilated. Journal of American Medical Association, Chicago 
1916, lxvii, 1031. . .... 

Belot, J. and Privat. La mecanotherapie agricole. Pans Medical, 1916, vi, pt. 2 
498-501. 

_ La mdcanoth^rapie agricole. In: Reeducation fonctionnelle et reeducation 

professionnelle des blesses, Paris, 1917, p. 181-192. ... 

Beratungsstelle fiir Kriegsbeschadigte der Genossenschaft Deutscher Buhnenangehori- 
gen. Zeitschrift fur Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1917, x, 209-212. 

Beratungsstelle fur Kriegsverletzte in Munchen. Der Arbeitsnacliweis in Deutsch- 
landTBerlin, 1915, ii, 122. , . , £ _ . . . _ 

von Berg Der Kriegsbeschadigte in der Landwirtschaft. Komgsberg i. Pr., 1916. 

Bericht iiber die Sitzung des Deutschen Hilfsbundes fiir kriegsverletzte Offiziere, 
E V. am 9. Juni 1917 im Saale der Handelskammer Stuttgait. Deutscher Hilfs- 
bund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 385-391. 






80 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


Bernhard. Business organization of the workshops connected with the Royal Ortho¬ 
pedic Reserve Hospital at Niirnberg. American Journal of Care for Cripples, New 
York, 1917, iv, 197-200. 

- Die geschiiftliche Organisation des Werkstatten-Betriebes im k. orthopa- 

dischen Reserve-Lazarett Niirnberg. In: Kriegsinvalidenf iirsorge, Wurzburg, 

1915, p. 29-34. 

Berr, Emile. Un cultivateur sans mains. Journal des Mutiles, Reformes et Victimcs 
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II. Session 1914-1915. Zeitschrift f iir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 205-209. 

Erfolg der Verwundetenpflege. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 19? 6, i, no. 23. 

Ergebnisse der Kriegsinvalidenfursorge im Kgl. orthopadischen Reservelazarett 
Niirnberg. Wurzburg, 1916. 

Ernest-Charles, J. La reeducation professionnelle des mutiles et l’Union des Colonies 
iltrang&res en France. Paris, 1917. 

Erskine House: the Princess Louise Scottish Hospital. Scottish Country Life, Glas¬ 
gow, 1916, iii, 321-324. 

Erster Bericht liber die Prasidialsitzung und 1. Mitgliederversammlung des Deuts- 
chen Hilfsbundes fiir kriegsverletzte Offiziere, E. V. Deutscher Hilfsbund, Ber¬ 
lin, 1917, ii, 241-249. 

Eureka (pseud.). Les mutiles peuvent faire de la bicyclette. Journal des Mutiles 
R6formes, et Blesses de Guerre, Paris, 1916, no. 4, p. 10. 

Euting, Ernst. Flirsorgemoglichkeiten fIir kriegsbeschadigte Berufsmusiker. Zeit- 
, echmtfiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 555-562. 

Evaluation scientifique des pensions et indemnites des reformes de la guerre. La 
Nature, Paris, 1917, xlv, 49-52. 

Ewald. Der Arzt als Sozialpolitiker. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1916, ii, no. 6. 

- Uber mehrfach Verstiimmelte und ihren spateren Beruf. Liibecker Laza¬ 
rett-Zeitung, 1916, i, no. 20. . , 

E^qiosition (r) des travaux des mutiles. Journal des Mutiles, Reiormes et Blesses de 
Guerre, Pans, 1916, no. 2, p. 5 

Fahrpreisermassigung fiir deutsche Kriegsbeschadigte. I. Deutscher Hillsbund, 
Berlin, 1917, ii, 109. _ . ^ TTM . t 

Fahrpreisermassigung fiir deutsche Kriegsbeschadigte. II. Deutscher Hillsbund, 
Berlin, 1917, ii, 121. 

Farm work for discharged soldiers. British Medical Journal, London, 1916, II, 56. 



86 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORSj 

Federation Nationale d’Assistance aux Mutiles. Paris. Aux infirmieres des hopi- 
taux militaires et auxiliaires. n.d. 

• - Bulletin No. 1. February 15, 1917. 

• - Bulletin No. 3. June 15, 1917. 

—-- Bulletin No. 4. August 15, 1917. 

——— La Federation Nationale a 1’ Exposition des Travaux de Mutiles ouverte par 

la Municipality Parisienne au Musee Galliera. n.d. 

-- Notice. January 1, 1917. 

- Statuts. 1916. 

Felton, Howard C. Helping crippled soldiers; how the disabled victims of the great 
war are restored to a life of useful work and healthful play. Munsey’s Magazine, 
New York, 1916, lvii, 240-250, 

Ferenczi, Emerich. Programm fur eine systematische Invalidenfursorge in Ungarn. 
Zeitschriftfiir Kruppelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1915, viii, 253-259. 

• - Staatliche Invalidenfursorge in Ungarn. Zeitschrift fur Kruppelfiirsorge, 

Leipzig, 1916, ix, 145-153. 

- Hie wirtschaftliche Zukunft der Kriegsin val iden. Pester Lloyd, December 

8, 1914. 

Ferrannini, Luigi. La lieducazione professionale degli invalidi della guerra. 
Milano, 1916. 

Finding work for men crippled in war. American Review of Reviews, New York, 

1916, liii, 226-228. 

Fischbacher. Wie wird fur die Angehorigen unserer Krieger gesorgt? Berlin, 1917. 
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sinvalidenfiirsorge, Wurzburg, 1915, p. 1-8. 

• - Die Arbeitsnachweis fiir Kriegsbeschadigte. Reichsausschuss der Kriegs- 

beschadigtenfursorge. Sonderschriften, Heft, 1, Berlin, 1917, p. 171-179. 
Fitzpatrick, W. Repatriation of the disabled soldier in Australia; vocational train¬ 
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• - The repatriation of the soldier, vocational training, employment, afforesta¬ 

tion, land settlement. (Victorian State War Council.) Melbourne, 1917. 
Flemming. Wie Kriegsbeschadigte und Unfallverletzte auch bei Verstummelung 
ihr Los verbessern konnen. Saarbriicken, 1916. 

Flesch. Die Stellung der Armenpflege. Zeitschrift fur Kruppelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 

1915, viii, 176-181. 

Fontane, Ed. La responsabilite des oeuvres de reeducation des mutiles de guerre au 
point de vue des accidents. Paris Medical, 1916, vi, pt. 2, 496. 

-La responsibility des oeuvres de reeducation des mutiles de guerre au point 

de vue des accidents. In: Reeducation fonctionnelle et reeducation profession- 
nelle des blesses. Paris, 1917, p. 68-72. 

Forster, Hans. Aus der Arbeit—fiir die Arbeit. 9. Mehr Arbeitstherapie fiir die 
Friedenskriippel! Zeitschrift fiir Kruppelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1917, x, 307-310. 

For war cripples. Charitv Organization Bulletin, New York, June 27, 1917, no. 182, 
p. 2-3. 

For war cripples in Philadelphia. American Journal of Care for Cripples, New York, 

1917, v. 213. 

Forbin, V. L’Enseignement professionnel des blesses de la guerre. La Nature, Paris, 

1916, xxxxiv, 236-238. 

Forster, Hans. Die Selbsthilfe. Monatsblatter fiir Invaliden- und Kruppelhilfe, 
Leipzig, 1915, i, 47-48. 

France. Rapport fait au nom de la commission du travail chargee d’examiner: 1. La 
proposition de loi de M. A.drien Pressemane et plusieurs de sea collegues, tendant a 
assurer l’emploi obligatoire des mutiles de guerre; 2. La proposition de loi de 
Maurice Violette tendant a creer un office national pour le placement des reformes 
de la guerre, par M. Durafour, depute. Documents Parlementaires, Chambre, sess. 
ord., Paris, October 15, 1916, p. 1429-1444. 

- Minist5re de l’lnterieur. Centres et ecoles de reeducation professionnelle 

pour les soldats mutiles. [Map.] n. d. 

-- Office National des Mutiles et Reformes de la Guerre. Agriculteurs mutiles, 

ne changez pas de metier! Bordeaux, 1917. 

- Bulletin No. 1. Annee 1916. [Report for 1916.] Paris, 1917. 

- Comites departementaux et locaux. Paris, 1916. 

- Legislation. Documentation Interalliee relative aux Invalides de la Guerre, 

no. 1, Paris, 1917. 

France’s crippled soldiers. Outlook, New York, 1916, cxiii, 299-300. 

















VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 87 


! ranceschim, Giovanni. Per la riedueazione dei mutilati. II metodo italiano di 
protesi con movimenti. Nuova Antologia, Roma, 1916, ser. 6, clxxxi, 412-421. 

Franz, S. I. Re-education and rehabilitation of cripples maimed and otherwise 
disabled by war. Volta Review, Washington, xix, 385-387. 

Frassdorf. Die Beteiligung der Arbeitnehmer. Zeitschrift fur Kruppelfiirsoree. 
Leipzig, 1915, viii, 169-172. b ' 

Frei, Hans. Praktische Erwerbsfiirsorge fur die Kriegsbeschiidigten. Zeitschrift fiir 
kriippelfursorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 56-60. 

French (the) system of dealing with disabled soldiers. British Medical Journal. 

^ London, 1916, ii, 492-493. 

Fryer, C. E. Returned soldiers in Canada. New Republic, New York, 1917, x, 
13—15. 


Furniss, H. S. The scandal of the disabled. Nation, London, 1917, xx, 581. 
Fiirsorge fiir unsere Kriegsverletzten. Technik und Wirtschaft, Berlin, viii, 148-157. 
Future (the) of the crippled soldier. American Journal of Care for Cripples, New 
York, 1917, v. 365-366. 

Future (the) of the crippled soldier. Medical Record, New York, 1917, xcii, 249. 
Future of disabled soldiers. Modem Hospital, St. Louis, ix, 124-125. 

Future of the incompletely recovered injured soldier. Lancet, London, 1915, clxxxix, 
152-153. 

Future (the) of the war cripple. Lancet, London, 1916, cxc-i, 649. 

Galeazzi, Riccardo. Come si rieducano i soldati mutilati. Firenze, [1916 j. 

- Le modeme prowidenze sociali per i mutilati in guerra. Atti della Society 

lombarda di Scienze mediche e biologiche, Milano, 1915, iv, 180-206. 

Gallison, Mrs. H. H. Germany in war time. Outlook, New York, 1916, cxiv. 
Galsworthy, John. The need for reality. War Pensions Gazette, London, 1917, i. 
21 - 22 . * ' 


- The need for reality. American Journal of Care for Cripples. New York, 

1917, v, 137-138. 

- Remade or marred? A great national duty. The Times, London, October 

14 ? 1916, p. 9, col. 4. 

Galtier-Boissi&re. CEuvres protectriees du soldat. Blesse ou malade. Reform^ 
(reeducation). Prisonnier de guerre. Paris, n. d. 

Gautrelet, J. Les bases scientifiques de F Education profeesionnelle des mutiles. 

Bulletin de l’Academie de Medecine, Paris, 1915, 3 e ser., lxxiii, 663-668. 

Gelfert, R. Der Geistliche als Fiihrer der Gemeinde. Monatsblatter fiir Invaliden- 
und Kruppelhilfe, Leipzig, 1915, i, 10-12. 

Gerhardt, Karl. Die Kriegsbeschadigtenfiirsorge in der Provinz Brandenburg. 

Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfursorge, Leipzig, 1915, viii, 259-266. 

Germany; Unemployed disabled soldiers in the Rhine Province. War Pensions 
Gazette, London, 1917, i, 104. 

Geschaftsbericht des Deutschen Hilfsbundes fiir kriegsverlet^te Offiziere fiir das 
Jahr 1916. Deutscher Hilsfbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 205-208. 

Gidey, G. A. Sainte-Adresse. Journal des Mutiles, Reformes et Blesses de Guerre, 
Paris, 1916, no. 4, p. 7. 

- L’Ecole d’Annecy. Journal des Mutiles, Reformes et Blesses de Guerre, 

Paris, 1917, no. 14, p. 3. 

Gilbreth, Frank B. Motion study for the crippled soldier. Journal of the American 
Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, 1915, xxxvii, 669-675. 

- Motion study for war cripples. Literary Digest, New York, 1916, lii, 169-170. 

- The problem of the crippled soldier; what shall be done with him after the 

war? Scientific American Supplement, New York, 1915, lxxx, 402-403. 

Gilbreth, Frank B., and Lillian M. Gilbreth. The conservation of the world’s teeth. 
A new occupation for crippled soldiers. Trained Nurse and Hospital Review, New 
York, 1917, lix, 5-11. 

-- The engineer, the cripple and the new education. New York, 1917. 

- How to put the crippled soldier on the pay roll. Trained Nurse and Hospital 

Review, New York, 1917, lviii, 255-260. 

- Measurement of the human factor in industry. (To be presented at the 

National Conference of the Western Efficiency Society, May 22-25, 1917.) n. p., 

n. d. 

- Motion study for crippled soldiers. (A paper presented at a meeting of the 

American Association for the Advancement of Science, in Columbus, Ohio, Decem¬ 
ber 27, 1915, to January 1, 1916.) n. p., n. d. 

- The problem of the crippled soldier. Scientific American Supplement, New 

York, 1917, lxxxiii, 260-262. 













88 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


Gillet, D. Ivriegsbeschadigte Offiziere als Leiter von Arbeitsnachweisen. Deutsclier 
Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 90-91. 

Glaessner, Paul. Der Arzt und die Arbeitsvermittlung fiir Ivriegsbeschadigte. 
Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1917, x, 300-302. 

Glass. Einiges zur Wohnungsfrage fiir kriegsverletzte Offiziere. Deutsclier Hilfs¬ 
bund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 416-418. 

Gleason, Arthur. Remaking France. New York, 1916. 

Glorieux apprentis. Un congr&s s’ouvre pour les mutiles. Lectures pour Tous, 
Paris, 1917, xix, 1027-1032. 

Goetschy, Fernand. La reeducation des mutiles de la guerre. R£forme Sociale, 
Paris, 1916, 8 ieme ser., i, 221-257. 

Gomot, H. La main-d’ceuvre notariale. Petit Journal, Paris, August 17, 1917. 

Gosling, Hairy. Training and trade-unions. War Pensions Gazette, London, 1917, 
i, 33-34. 

Gotter, Karl, and Herold. Die Dusseldorfer Verwundetenschule. Diisseldorf, 1916. 

Government to re-educate our wounded soldiers. Popular Mechanics, Chicago, 1917, 
xxviii, 876. 

Gradenwitz, Alfred. Educating invalid soldiers. How war cripples are taught to 
do without hands and feet. Scientific American, New York, 1915, cxiii, 229. 

Great Britain. Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. Committee on Land Settlement 
for Sailors and Soldiers. Final report * * * [on] the settlement and em¬ 
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minutes of evidence]. London, 1916. 3 vols. (Cd. 8182, 8277, 8347.) 

- Local Government Board. Disabled Sailors and Soldiers Committee. Dis¬ 
abled sailors and soldiers. Report * * * upon the provision of employment 
for sailors and soldiers disabled in the war. London, 1915. (Cd. 7915.) 

- Local Government Board. Intelligence Department. Work in France and 

Germany. Recalled to Life, London, 1917, i, 130-186. 

- Ministry of Labour. Reports upon openings in industry suitable for disabled 

sailors and soldiers. No. I. Attendants at electricity sub-stations. April, 1917. 

- Reports upon openings in industry suitable for disabled sailors and soldiers. 

No. II. Employment in picture theatres. May, 1917. 

- Reports upon openings in industry suitable for disabled sailors and soldiers. 

No. III. Tailoring. June, 1917. 

-- Reports upon openings in industry suitable for disabled sailors and soldiers. 

No. IV. Agricultural motor tractor work in England and Wales. July, 1917. 

-Reports upon openings in industry suitable for disabled sailors and soldiers. 

No. V. The furniture trade. September, 1917. 

-Reports upon openings in industry suitable for disabled sailors and soldiers. 

No. VI. Leather goods trade. September, 1917. 

-Reports upon openings in industry suitable for disabled sailors and soldiers. 

No. VII. Hand-sewn boot and shoe making and boot and shoe repairing. 1917. 

- Ministry of Pensions. The draft of a royal warrant for the retired pay of 

officers disabled, and for the pensions of the families and relatives of officers deceased, 
and for the pensions of nurses disabled, in consequence of the present war. To 
which are appended an explanatory note and an actuarial report. London, 1917. 
(Cd. 8631.) 

-- The drafts of a royal warrant and of an order in council for the pensions of 

soldiers and sailors disabled and of the families and dependents of soldiers and 
sailors deceased in consequence of the present war. To which are appended an 
explanatory note an an actuarial report. London, 1917. (Cd. 8485.) 

-- Instructions and notes on the treatment and training of disabled men. Lon¬ 
don, 1917. 

— -- War Office. Army order. II. Pensions of soldiers disabled, and of the 

families and dependents of soldiers deceased, in consequence of the present war. 
May 2, 1917. 

- Army order. V. Royal warrant for the retired pay of officers disabled and 

for the pensions of the families and relatives of officers deceased, and for the pensions 
of nurses disabled, in consequence of the present war. August 18, 1917. 

— - Guide to civil employment for ex-soldiers. 1913. London, 1913. 

Griffith-Boscawen, Sir Arthur. [Address at the] Inter-Allied Conference at Paris on 

the treatment and training of disabled soldiers. Recalled to Life, London 1917 
i, 43-49. 

— - A ministry of restoration. War Pensions Gazette, London, 1917, i, 61-62. 

■—-— Report on the Inter-Allied Conference for the study of professional re-educa¬ 
tion, and other questions of interest to soldiers and sailors disabled by the war. 
(For official use.) London, 1917. 



















VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 89 


Griffith-Boscawen, Sir Arthur. The treatment and training of the disabled. No. 5: 
The Inter-Allied Conference. War Pensions Gazette, London, 1917, i, 52-54. 

Griflith-Boscawen, Sir Arthur, Sir Walter Lawrence, and Sir Arthur Stanley. Recent 
developments. Recalled to Life, London, 1917, i, 205-212. 

Grob. Von den Kriippeln—fiir die Kriippel. i. Lebenskiimpfer. Monatsblatter fur 
Invaliden-und Kriippelhilfe, Leipzig, 1915, i, 22-24. 

Grosbety, P. Les emplois civils reserves aux mutiles de la guerre. I. Journal des 
Mutiles, Reformes et Blesses de Guerre, Paris, 1916, no. 5, p. 7. 

■- Les emplois civils reserves aux mutiles de la guerre. II. Journal des Mutiles, 

Reformes et Blesses de Guerre, Paris, 1916, no. 6, p. 6. 

- Les emplois civils reserves aux mutiles de la guerre. III. Journal des Mutiles, 

Reform^s et Blesses de Guerre, Paris, 1916, no. 7, p. 4. 

Grosselfinger, Karl. Aus der Schule der Einarmigen in Wien. Zeitschrift fur 
Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 597-598. 

Grundsatze fiir die Durchfiihrung der Kriegsbeschadigtenansiedlung. Reichsaus- 
schuss der Kriegsbeschadigtenfiirsorge. Sonderschriften, Heft 4, Berlin, 1917. 

Gualdi, Enrico. Per la rieducazione funzionale e professional dei mutilati del- 
P arto superiore. Bolletino della Federazione Nazionale dei Comitati di Assistenza 
ai Militari Ciechi, Storpi, Mutilati, Roma, 1917, ii, 145-149. 

Guedy, Claire. What Lyons is doing for the wounded and the refugees. Outlook, 
New York, 1915, cxi, 737-743. 

Ilaac, Oscar. 2. Jahresbericht des Arbeitsnachweises fur genesende Soldaten. Yom 
Krieg zur Friedensarbeit, Berlin, 1917, iii, 4-5. 

Haftpflichtversicherung der Kriegsbeschadigten in Westfalen. Zeitschrift fiir 
Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 347-349. 

Haggard, Sir H. Rider. _ The after-war settlement and employment of ex-service men 
in the oversea dominions; report to the Royal Colonial Institute. London, 1916. 

Handelshochschule zu Konigsbergi. Pr. Deutscher Hilfsbund. Berlin, 1917, ii, 181. 

Handwerkliche Ausbildung Kriegsbeschadigter in Lazaretten. Lubecker Lazarett- 
Zeitung, 1917, ii, no. 14. , 

Hannan, Thomas. Technical schools for maimed soldiers: l’Ecole Joffre at Lyons. 
American Journal of Care for Cripples, New York, 1917, iv, 3-12. 

— -- Technical schools for maimed soldiers: PEcole Joffre at Lyons. Contempor¬ 

ary Review, London, 1916, cx, 105-112. 

- What France is doing for her wounded: les 6coles professionnelles de blesses. 

World’s Work, London, 1916, xxviii, 293-301. 

Hansen. Arbeiterversicherung und Kriegsbeschadigtenflirsorge. Korrespondenz fiir 
Rriegswohlfahrtspflege, Berlin, 1916, ii, 1-3. 

.—-- Bisherige Leistungen der Kriegskriippelfiirsorge in Schleswig-Holstein. 

Zeitschrift fiir Kruppelfursorge, Leipzig, 1917, x, 32-34. 

. Das Recht des Kriippels. Zeitschrift fiir Kruppelfursorge, Leipzig, 1917, x, 

252-258. , 

— - Richtlinien fiir den Unterricht Kriegsbeschadigter iiber Fragen der Arbeiter¬ 

versicherung. Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 168-172. 

— -- Das Wort einer badischen Arbeiterfrau. Lubecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1917, 

ii, no. 20. 

Hartmann, Konrad. Die Fiirsorge fiir Kriegsbeschadigte. Der Arbeitsnachweis in 
Deutschland, Berlin, 1915, ii, 177-181. 

Hartwig. Das grosste Ungliick. Lubecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1915, i, no. 3. 

Heiden, Johannes. Fiirsorge fiir die Kriegsinvaliden und die hinterbliebenen Ge- 
fallenen. Sozialistische Monatshefte, Berlin, 1915, xxi, 1,292-298. 

Heinemann, Werner. Kriegsbeschadigtenhandlungsgehilfen. Zeitschrift fur Krup- 
pelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 591-596. 

Helys, Marc. The re-education and placement of war cripples. American Journal 
of Care for Cripples, New York, 1917, iv, 168-178. 

.- La reeducation et le placement des mutiles et des aveugles. Le Correspond- 

ant, Paris, lxxxviii, 1083-1100. 

— - Laranconde laglorie. In: Cantiniere de la Croix Rouge, 1914-1916. Paris, 

1917, p. 103-135. 

Heimstatten fiir Kriegsverletzte! Liibeeker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1915, i, no. 12. 

11 enriquez-Phillipe. Les mutiles de la guerre pourront reprendre leurs occupations 

Hanterieures. La Nature, Paris, 1916, xxxxiv, 286-288. 

-- The same. Feuille dans Lausanne, August 10, 1917. 

erbst. Die Fiirsorge fiir die Kriegsbeschadigten. Jahrbucher fiir Nationalokonomie 
und Statistik, Jena, 1916, cvi, 104-144. . 

— - Die Literatur zur Kriegsbeschadigtenfrage. Zeitschrut iiir Sozialwissen- 

schaft, Leipzig, 1915, n. f., vii, 482-486. 











90 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


Heritage School of Arts and Crafts for Crippled Boys and Girls, C-hailey, Sussex, 
England. Educative convalescence for the wounded as initiated at the Princess 
Louise Military Wards, Heritage Craft Schools, Chailey, Sussex, second edition, 
1916. 

— --Educative convalescence for the wounded; crippled boys help wounded 

soldiers. Reprinted from various London newspapers, 1915. 

Heritage School of Arts and Crafts for Crippled Boys and Girls. The Kitchener 
heritage. [1917.] 

— -• Order of service, September 19, 1917. 

- Shrovetide festival concert in aid of educative convalescence for the wounded. 

- Statement of receipts and payments for the year ended August 31, 1915. 

Hermann, Carl. Ratschlage fur Einhandige und Einarmige. Dresden, 1915. 

Hermann, Salomon. Unsere Kriegsinvaliden—Heim und Werkstatt in Gartensied- 
lung. Leipzig, 1915. 

Herriot, Edouard. Agir. Paris, 1917. 

Heufer, R. Die gewerbliche Berufsfiirsorge fur Kopfschusse. Zeitschrift fur Kriip¬ 
pelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 541-555. 

Hilfsdienstpflicht und Kriegsbeschadigte. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1917, ii, 
no. 13. 

Hill, Walter. The treatment and training of the disabled. No. 4: The Military 
Orthopaedic Hospital, Shepherd’s Bush, W. War Pensions Gazette, London, 1917, 

i, 40-41. 

Hillringhaus, Gust., Jr. Von den Kriippeln—fiir die Kriippel, 4. Lebenskampfer. 
Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig u. Hamburg. 1916, x, 32-35. 

Hints to discharged soldiers from a command discharge centre. London, 1917. 

Hintz, Willy. Erwerbsmoglichkeiten fiir Kriegsbeschadigte und Kriegerwitwen auf 
dem Lande. Miinchen, 1915. 

Hirschberg, W. Kriegsbeschadigte und vaterlandischer Hilfsdienst. Liibecker 
Lazarett-Zeitung, 1917, ii, no. 16. 

-- Militiirreiite und die Renten aus der sozialpolitischen Gesetzgebung. Lii¬ 
becker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1917, ii, no. 17; no. 18; no. 19. 

Hirschfeld, Gustave. Tourvielle. Lyon, 1917. 

Hoch, Julius. Ausstellung von Zeichnungen Kriegsverletzter im Liibecker Sol- 
datenheim * * * Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1917, ii, no. 20. 

——— Durchalten. Liibecker Lazarett-Zeitung, 1915, i, no. 7. 

Hochschulkurse zur Ausbildung von kriegsbeschadigten Akademikern in Statistik an 
der Universitat Gottingen. I. Deutscher Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 317. 

Hochschulkurse zur Ausbildung von kriegsbeschadigten Akademikern in Statistik an 
der Universitat Gottingen. II. Deutscher Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, ii, 333-334. 

Hochschulkurse zur Ausbildung von kriegsbeschadigten Offizieren und Akademikern 
in Statistik an der Universitat Gottingen. III. Deutscher Hilfsbund, Berlin, 1917, 

ii, 349-351. 

Hochschulkurse zur Ausbildung von kriegsbeschadigten Offizieren und Akademikern, 
in Statistik an der Universitat Gottingen. Amtliche Mitteilungen fiir kriegsbe¬ 
schadigte oderyersorgungsberechtigte Militarpersonen und fiir Hinterbliebene von 
Heeresangehorigen, Berlin, 1917, i, 229-230. 

Hoeftman. Invalidenfiirsorge—Kriegsbeschadigtenfiirsorge. Das Hindenburghaus, 
gegriindet 25. Februar 1911. Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1916, ix, 
346-347. 

Holman, Dudley M. The problem of the handicapped man. Bulletin of the United 
States Bureau of Labor Statistics, whole no. 212, Washington, 1917, p. 348-357. 

Hopkins, I. Beekeeping for returned soldiers. New Zealand Farmer, Auckland, 
April, 1917, p. 455-456. 

Ilonon. Kriegsbeschadigtenfiirsorge und Mannschaftsversorgungsgesetz. Kolniscke 
Zeitung, November 25, 1915. 

-- Die Rentenfurcht der Kriegsbeschadigten. Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, 

Leipzig, 1916, ix, 164-168. 

Horion. Schwierigkeiten bei der Berufsberatung Kriegsbeschadigter. Zeitschrift 
fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 1917, x, 58-63. 

- Uber den Gebrauch der Prothesen. Zeitschrift fiir Kriippelfiirsorge, Leipzig, 

1916, ix, 536-541. 

How France returns her soldiers to civilian life. Monthly Review of the U. S. Bureau 
of Labor Statistics, Washington, 1917, v. no. 2, 105-110. 

Iloyer. Die Kriegsinvaliden auf der landwirtschaftlichen Lehransta.lt Gross-Tarpen 
bei Graudenz. Amtliche Mitteilungen fiir kriegsbeschadigte oder versorgungsber- 
echtigte Militarpersonen und fiir Hinterbliebene von Heeresangehorigen, Berlin, 

1917, i, 50-52. 










VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 91 


Boyer. War cripples at the agricultural training institution, Gross-Tarpen, near 
Graudenz, Germany. American Journal of Care for Cripples, New York, 1917, v, 
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Human salvage. Literary Digest, New York, 1916, lii, 63-64. 

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92 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


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Wurzburg, 1915. 






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3). Berlin, 1917. 






94 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


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VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 95 


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42297°—S. Doc. 166, 65—2-7 










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100 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


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102 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


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104 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OE DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

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106 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

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■ - Fragen zur Ansiedlung Kriegsbesohadigter. Zeitschrift fur Krtippeliursorge, 

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--— Wie ein Einhiinder sich selber ein Behelfsglied schuf und wieder veil arbeits- 

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Zumaglini, Antonio. Ginocehio articolato a scafcto in metallo fuso e snodo sferico 
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Zusammenfaseender Bericht der ausserordentlichen Tagung der Deutschen Yerein- 
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Zueammeaifaasender Bericht fiber die Tagung dc-s IY. Deutschen Kongresses fiir 
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ADDITIONS TO BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE WAR CRIPPLE. 

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108 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 


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B., Allegato. Decreto Luogotenenziale che stabilisce le categorie d , infermit& per i 
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Bollettino della Federazione Nazionale dei Comitati di Assistenza ai Militari Ciechi, 
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VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 109 

Dechar me, Pierre. Le retour b la terre ties mutiles et r£form£s de la guerre Con¬ 
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Ferrannini, Luigi. Per la riedueazione professionale degli invalidi della giierra. 
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Ferrannini, Luigi. Sulla obligatorietA degli atti operativi per i militari malati o 
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Fournier, Lucien. Nos glorieux estropies et la travail. La Nature, Paris, 1915, 
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Gadsby, Mrs. M. A. Finding jobs for Great Britain’s disabled soldiers. Monthly 
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Giardino. Disciplina degli invalidi presso le case di riedueazione. Bollettino della 
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Mutilati, Roma, 1917, ii, 274. 

Gilbretli. Frank B., and L. M. Gilbreth. The engineer, the cripple and the new 
education [and discussion]. Journal of the American Society of Mechanical En¬ 
gineers, New York, 1918, xi, 50-61. 

Goetschy, Fernand. La Federation Nationale D’Assistance aux Mutiles et la Re¬ 
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Guillaume, A.-C. Les mutiles dans la vie agricole. La Nature, Paris, 1917, xi, 
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Gusmitta, Mario. Per la riedueazione agricola degli invalidi della guerra. Bollet¬ 
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Honhon. La reeducation apres la guerre des homines qui n’ont pu profiter de la 
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How the Red Cross will restore war’s battered victims to usefulness. American 
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If the war lasts. Harvard Graduates Magazine, Bostpn, 1917, xxvi, 250-251. 

lmbert. A. Le travail professionnel agent de la reeducation physique. Conference 
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Inaugurazione (P) della ‘‘Casa di Riedueazione Professionale” di Firenze. Bollet¬ 
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Instituto (P) di Salerno. Bollettino della Federazione Nazionale die Comitati di 
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110 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

Keogh, Sir Alfred. Rapport [on work in England]. In: Conference. Interalliee pour 
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Land settlement for soldiers in Australia. Monthly Review of the U. S. Bureau of 
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Levi, Ettore. Dell’ assistenza presente e futura dei nostri reduci del tutto inabilitati 
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Federazione Nazionale dei Comitati di Assistenza ai Militari Ciechi, Storpi, Muti¬ 
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Levy, William. Der Verlust der Hande und ihr Ersatz. Berlin, 1916. 

MeMurtrie, Douglas C. Work for cripples. Evening Post, New York, November 23, 
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Malleterre. L’assistance aux invalides absolus de la guerre reformes No. 1 et pen¬ 
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March, Lucien. Distribution des invalides de la guerre, suivant P invalidity, la pro¬ 
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Modena, Gustavo. La colonia agricola per la rieducazione professionale dei soldati 
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Mutilati di guerra da adibirsi come agenti postali rurali. Bollettino della Federa¬ 
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—-—. Regolamento per F esecuzione della Legge 25 Marzo 1917, n. 481, che istituisce 
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Storpi, Mutilati, Roma, 1917, ii, 97-98. 








VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. Ill 


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112 VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS. 

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o 




BULLETIN No. 6 


Training of Teachers for Occupational 
Therapy for the Rehabilitation of 
Disabled Soldiers and Sailors 


ISSUED BY THE 

FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
WASHINGTON 


FEBRUARY, 1918 


Reprinted July, 1918 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1918 















FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

MEMBERS. 


David F. Houston, Chairman, 
Secretary of Agriculture. 
William C. Redfield, 

Secretary of Commerce. 
William B. Wilson, 

Secretary of Labor. 


James P. Munroe, 

Manufacture and Commerce. 
Charles A. Greathouse, 
Agriculture. 

Arthur E. Holder, 

Labor. 


P. P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education. 


executive staff. 

C. A. Prosser. Director. 


Layton S. Hawkins, 

Assistant Director for 

Agricultural Education. 
Lewis H. Carris, 

Assistant Director for 

Industrial Education. 

F. G. Nichols, 

Assistant Director for 

Commercial Education. 


Josephine T. Berry, 

Assistant Director for Home 
Economics Education. 
Charles H. Winslow, 

Assistant Director for Research 


All communications should be addressed to 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C 

( 2 ) 






65th CONGRESS, 
2d Session. 


S. RES. 189. 


IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES. 

January 28 , 1918 . 

Mr. Smith of Georgia submitted the following resolution; which was consid¬ 
ered and agreed to. 


RESOLUTION. 

1 Resolved, That the Federal Board for Vocational Educa- 

2 tion be directed to furnish to the Senate such information as it 

3 may have or can readily obtain on the rehabilitation and voca- 

4 tional reeducation of crippled soldiers and sailors. 


3 






PUBLICATIONS CF THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


Annual Report for 1917. 

The Vocational Summary, published monthly by the Federal Board for Voca¬ 
tional Education (Vol. I, No. 1, May, 1918). 

1. Statement of Policies. 

2. Training Conscripted Men for Service as Radio and Buzzer 
Operators in the United States Army (International Code). 

3. Emergency Training in Shipbuilding—Evening and Part- 
Time Classes for Shipyard Workers. 

4. Mechanical and Technical Training for Conscripted’Men (Air 
Division, U. S. Signal Corps). 

5. Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. 

6. Training of Teachers for Occupational Therapy for the Re¬ 
habilitation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. 

7. Emergency War Training for Motor-Truck Drivers and 
Chauffeurs. 

S. Emergency War Training for Machine-Shop Occupations, 
Blacksmitliing, Sheet-Metal Working, and Pipe Fitting. 

9. Emergency War Training for Electricians, Telephone Re¬ 
pairmen, Linemen, and Cable Splicers. 

^Bulletin No. 10. Emergency War Training for Gas-Engine, Motor-Car, and 

Motor-Cycle Repairmen. 

^Bulletin No. 11. Emergency War Training for Oxy-Acetylene Welders. 
*Bulletin No. 12. Emergency War Training for Airplane Mechanics—Engine 

Repairmen, Woodworkers, Riggers, and Sheet-Metal 
Workers. 

Bulletin No. 13. (Agricultural Series, No. 1.) Agricultural Education—Or¬ 
ganization and Administration. 

Bulletin No. 14. (Agricultural Series, No. 2.) Reference Material for Voca¬ 
tional Agricultural Instruction. 

Bulletin No. 15. (Reeducational Series, No. 3.) The Evolution of National 
Systems of Vocational Reeducation for Disabled Soldiers 
and Sailors. 


Bulletin No. 

* Bulletin No. 

Bulletin No. 

*Bulletin No. 

Bulletin No. 
Bulletin No. 

^Bulletin No. 

^Bulletin No. 

* Bulletin No. 


All communications should be addressed to 

The Federal Board for Yoeational Education, Washington, D. C. 

* Emergency war training for conscripted and enlisted men. 


4 










LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 


Federal Board for Vocational Education, 

Washington , January 29,19IS. 

Sir: The Federal Board for Vocational Education is in receipt of 
the following resolution of the Senate of January 28, 1918: 

Resolved , That the Federal Board for Vocational Education be directed to 
furnish to the Senate such information as it may have or can readily obtain 
on the rehabilitation and vocational reeducation of crippled soldiers and sailors. 

Pursuant thereto there is herewith transmitted a study by the 
Federal board entitled “The rehabilitation of disabled soldiers and 
sailors, and teacher training for occupational therapy.” 
Respectfully, 

James P. Munroe, 

Vice Chairman. 

Hon. Thomas R. Marshall, 

President United States Senate, Washington, D. C. 









. 




















CONTENTS. 


Page. 


Foreword. 9 

Introduction. 11 


Part I. 

The problem of training teachers... 

Problems in teaching the war invalids. 

Readjustment to civil life. 

Classification of disabled men according to impairment of working capacity. 

(a) Men not able to compete under any conditions. 

( b) Men not able to compete after completion of medical treatment... 

(c) Men able to compete after completion of medical treatment. 

Chart showing stages of occupational treatment in hospitals and teacher 

training.,. 

Organization. 

Selection of instructors for invalid occupations. 

Selection of instructors for occupational therapy. 

Course of study. 

I The problem of rehabilitation. 

II Study of occupational therapy in convalescent cases of internal 

diseases, injuries, and post-surgical treatment (not orthopedic).. 

III Study of occupational therapy in relation to orthopedic treatment. 

IV Study of occupational therapy in mental and nervous disorders.. 

V Technique of occupational therapy. 

VI Study of occupations in relation to occupational therapy. 

VII Methods of teaching.:. 

VIII The curative workshop. 

Qualifications of teachers for directing occupational therapy. 

Qualifications of teachers for vocational education. 

Equipment. 

(a) Invalid occupations. 

(b) Occupational therapy. 


15 

15 

18 

20 

20 

20 

20 


22 

23 

24 

24 

25 
25 


25 

25 

26 
26 
26 
26 
27 
27 

31 

32 

32 

33 


Part II. 


Functions of occupational therapy. 35 

Psychological functions. 35 

Physiological functions.- - - - 37 

Internal diseases, injuries and post-surgical treatment (not orthopedic). 39 

Orthopedic surgery. 41 

Occupational therapy and the war invalid. 42 

Mental and nervous disorders. 43 

Internal diseases, injuries, and post-surgical treatment (not orthopedic). 45 

Orthopedic surgery. 46 

The need for immediate occupation.... 48 

The present field of occupational therapy, and its possibilities of development. 48 

Part III. 

Social and economic aspects of occupational therapy. 52 

Advisability of practical work. 52 

Remuneration of men in workshops. 55 

Marketable products.v;--*..*. 56 

Overlapping of stages of rehabilitation. 57 

Contributions of vocational expert. 58 

(а) Occupational direction.-. 60 

(б) Classification of duties o£ vocational expert. 61 









































8 CONTENTS. 


Social and economic aspects of occupational therapy—Continued. Page. 

Control of men during reeducation. 61 

Permanent provision for disabled men. 65 

Demobilization. 66 

Value of civilian strength and vitality. 66 

(a) Rehabilitation of the “ undesirable ”. 66 

(b) Rehabilitation of the “unfit”. 66 

(c) Rehabilitation of the industrially handicapped. 67 

Necessity for occupational therapy at all times. *. . 67 

Value of the handicapped. 69 

Letters from rehabilitated soldiers. 69 

Suggested registration and record blanks for charting progress of patients.. 72 

Hospital registration. 73 

Curative workshop weekly record. 74 

Hospital discharge. 75 

Vocational school weekly record. 76 



















REHABILITATION OF DISABLED SOLDIERS AND SAILORS—TEACHER 
TRAINING FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


FOREWORD. 

Not the least of the war problems in the field of vocational educa¬ 
tion is the industrial rehabilitation of the disabled soldier and sailor. 
Realizing that if the United States was to avoid the serious mistakes 
made by several of the belligerent nations in their early attempts to 
solve this problem, the Federal Board for Vocational Education, on 
August 16, 1917, authorized its research division to investigate thor¬ 
oughly and at the earliest possible moment the entire question of the 
rehabilitation of war cripples. 

A preliminary survey of the experience of the European nations 
since the beginning of the great war had convinced the board that it 
was necessary to develop facts from every source for the formulation 
of a broad and comprehensive plan for the restoration of men, 
handicapped as a direct outcome of their military employment, to 
useful industrial employment. This study aims, therefore, to build 
upon such information as was available before the war, to # enrich 
and complete it with the abundant foreign experience gained since the 
war. and to anticipate the problems of demobilization which will far 
outlast the war itself and which will conserve in handicapped labor 
a resource of great economic value. 

Rehabilitation, whether of the war or of industrial cripples, de¬ 
pends to a large extent on the practice of occupational therapy dur¬ 
ing convalescence. In the present moment of preparation the United 
States discovers at once the great need for occupational therapeutists 
and an equally great shortage in the supply. It is the principal pur¬ 
pose of the study presented in this document to attempt to meet this 
situation, to show what methods Europe, after costly experiment, lias 
found to be the best, to outline courses for (he emergency training of 
teachers, and to map out the essentials of a complete national pro¬ 
gram of rehabilitation. 

This study was made by Elizabeth G. Upham, under the direction 
of Charles II. Winslow, Assistant Director for Research. Acknowl¬ 
edgment for valuable suggestions is made to Dr. William Rush Dun- 
ton, jr., President of the National Society for the Promotion of Oc¬ 
cupational Therapy and Instructor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins 
University, Baltimore: to Dr. J. Madison Taylor, Associate Professor 
of Nonpharmaceutic Therapeutics in the Medical Department of 
Temple University, Philadelphia; to Dr. Frankwood E. Williams, 
Vice Chairman of the Mental Hygiene War Work Committee of the 
National Committee for Mental Hygiene; to Dr. Shepherd Ivory 
Franz, Chairman of the Committee on Rehabilitation of Maimed and 
Crippled of the Council of National Defense; to T. B. Ividner, Voca¬ 
tional Secretary of the Canadian Military Hospitals Commission, 
and to officers of the Surgeon General’s Staff of the War Department. 

C. A. Prosser, Director. 

9 



- 




* 

• 


■ 

, 

• ■ 

11 1 




INTRODUCTION. 


Disabled soldiers and sailors are now returning to the United 
States from the theater of war, and the situation created by their 
return is one that calls for immediate action by the Federal Gov¬ 
ernment. The purely emergency problems involved in the ques¬ 
tion of the industrial rehabilitation of these men, great as they are, 
are only a part of the ever-present problem arising from the fact that 
a much larger number of men are annually crippled and handicapped 
in (lie ordinary course of industry. The present study attempts to 
analyze broadly the fundamentals of these problems, emphasizing 
particularly, however, the more pressing military aspects. It is to 
be hoped that whatever program may be adopted will serve not for 
the period of the war alone, to be discarded at its close, but also for 
the solution of the rehabilitation of the industrially handicapped. 

Between the time lvhen the disabled soldier or sailor enters the 
hospital and his final placement in industry, commerce, agriculture, 
or less frequently in the special workshop or home, there lies a long 
period of reeducation and adaptation. In this period such terms as 
“invalid or bedside occupations,” “occupational therapy,” “curative 
workshop,” and “ vocational education ” are commonly used. Each 
of these terms refers to some process-of the rehabilitation. The dis¬ 
tinct function of each, however, their overlapping and interdepend¬ 
ence are but vaguely understood, and therefore require definition . 1 

Hie different disabilities, physical and mental complications, the 
capabilities and experiences of the disabled soldier or sailor, are such 
that the problem of his rehabilitation is in each case an individual 
problem, and complete standardization of either medical or occupa¬ 
tional treatment is impossible. In the main, however, the average 
program for a man incapacitated for further military service over¬ 
seas may be described as follows: 

First, a period of acute illness or surgical care; second, a period of 
convalescence, frequently of long duration; third, vocational reedu¬ 
cation. These stages may merge imperceptibly into one another or 
they may be separate and distinct. In many instances one or two 
of the stages may be altogether omitted. 


1 A confusion exists between invalid or bedside occupations and occupational therapy. 
Institutions offering instruction to teachers in occupational therapy are giving identical 
courses with those offering instruction in invalid occupations. Invalid or bedside occupa¬ 
tions may be used interchangeably, as they cover the same field It lias been expedient in 
this study to draw the distinction between invalid occupations and occupational therapy, 
reserving' for occupational therapy work of a serious and educative type. The thera¬ 
peutic value of invalid or bedside occupations is, however, fully appreciated. It is impos¬ 
sible to give a complete* list of all the* institutions and hospitals in this country offering 
courses in “invalid occupations.” Notable among them are: 

The Experimental Station of Invalid Occupation, conducted by Miss Susan E. Tracy, 
Jamaica Plains, Mass. 

I>r. Wm. Rush Dunton, jr., course for nurses at the Sheppard and Enoch Pratt 
Hospitals, Towson, Md. 

Columbia University, department of nursing and health. 

The Red Cross class conducted by Mrs. Eleanor Clarke Slagle in Chicago. 

The Chicago School of Civics and Philanthropy, in cooperation with the Henry B. 
Faville School of Occupations, is offering a course for institutional workers. 

The Henry B. Faville School of Occupations of the Illinois Society for Mental Hygiene 
offers a course in training teachers for invalid occupations and occupational therapy. It 
gives instruction in occupational therapy to the extent that many of the materials han¬ 
dled are the raw materials of industry and the patients learn machine processes and the 
use of lathes. 


11 



12 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

As a rule the acute condition will occur overseas unless complica¬ 
tions or surgical operation take place after the patient has been trans¬ 
ported to the United States. Patients who are permanently dis¬ 
abled for further military service will be brought to this country as 
soon as their condition permits, thus relieving hospital congestion in 
France. In this country, furthermore, not only are supplies, care, 
and the elaborate equipment needed for many types of recovery 
accessible, but the technical schools and shops for vocational training 
are or will be at hand. As the patient recovers from the first acute 
convalescing, he may be given u invalid or bedside occupations.” 
Occupational therapy and the curative workshop are invaluable in 
the period of convalescence, while vocational education follows 
physical recovery, and is the final stage in rehabilitation. The three 
stages are necessarily distinct in their function, and call for distinct 
methods of teacher training and different kinds of equipment. They 
respond by improved conditions.” 1 

During the close of the first, or acute, stage of illness invalid occu¬ 
pations is sometimes the treatment. This is desirable in cases when 
the patient’s disability necessitates his staying in bed for a consider¬ 
able length of time. Not only will the time pass more quickly for 
the patient so employed but his mental outlook will be improved, 
and even in severely restricted positions certain activities will prove 
a physical benefit. The period of invalid occupations is perhaps the 
least important of the three stages in rehabilitation, since it usually 
covers the shortest period ancFmarks the interim when the patient 
is contending against the greatest number of limitations. The spe¬ 
cial object of invalid occupations is to help the wounded man feel 
that he is not wasting time and to save him from self-pity and a 
brooding condition of mind.- Even those who accept their condition 
with heroism and philosophy become depressed as a result of the 
long waiting to get well. Depression, inertia, and worry aggravate 
physical conditions, and the chief duty of the instructor of invalid 
occupations is to shorten the period of unproductiveness and worry, 
and if he can “ prove to the patient who chafes against his limita¬ 
tions that there is really a broad highway of usefulness opening be¬ 
fore him of which he knew nqt, the mental friction is diminished and 
satisfaction steals in, while the whole physical organism prepares to 
respond by improved conditions.” 1 

While the occupations given in this early stage of recovery may 
have a therapeutic effect, they, can not always be of practical value to 
the patient’s economic future inasmuch as the field of invalid occupa¬ 
tions is limited to the bed patient or to the patient unable to attend 
classes in the curative workshop. They should not be confused with 
occupational therapy, which is more comprehensive and belongs 
properly in the second or convalescing stage of rehabilitation. 2 

1 Studies in Invalid Occupations, by Susan E. Tracy. 

2 The first stage was not considered in the resolution passed at the interallied con¬ 
ference held in Paris, May 8-12, 1917. The following two stages were considered and 
differentiated as provided by resolution No. 43 : 

“ The reeducation of the wounded falls into two periods : 

“ 1. That of functional restoration by work, the object of which is to cure the 
wounded, prepare them for instruction, and encourage them to work. 

“ 2. That of technical reeducation, which begins as soon as the injuries are healed 
and is intended to restore morally, intellectually, and practically those who have limbs.” 





TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 13 

Occupational therapy is the science of healing by occupation, and 
the curative workshop is the shop where the convalescing patients 
are given occupational treatment. Occupational therapy is designed 
to cover the long and tedious periods of convalescence when the pa¬ 
tient- is able to be about, when medical treatment occupies only a part 
of his day, but when it is necessary for him to be under the strictest 
medical supervision. Long convalescence is characteristic of many 
of the disabilities of the disabled soldier or sailor, such as general 
debility, heart trouble, nerve disorders, tuberculosis, rheumatism, in¬ 
juries requiring orthopedic treatment, etc. 

Vocational training takes place on the completion of convalescence 
or when the patient has sufficiently recovered to be permitted to 
folloAV a prescribed course of study. Upon vocational training de¬ 
pends the employability of the man and his value as a producing 
agent. 

Important as is this final stage in rehabilitation, its success de¬ 
pends upon what has been accomplished by occupational therapy in 
the curative workshop. What is done during the convalescent stage 
forms the vital link between medical treatment and vocational educa¬ 
tion or economic adjustment. It is the critical and most important 
of the three stages. During this period, ambition, the desire for 
self-support and economic usefulness may be fostered, replacing the 
despair, apathy, and dependence often experienced. This is, more¬ 
over, the period when the patient regains the functional use of his 
body. The extent to which he becomes reeducated and the purpose 
and end to which that reeducation is directed make not only pos¬ 
sible vocational education but industrial rehabilitation as well. 
While many of the patients will have the opportunity to complete 
the training begun in the curative workshop in the vocational school, 
many others will be able to go directly into wage-earning occupa¬ 
tions. The period of occupational therapy must, therefore, be used 
to prepare and adjust many patients to civilian life. 

Occupational therapy has suddenly received world-wide recogni¬ 
tion as a factor indispensable in the rehabilitation of wounded sol¬ 
diers and sailors. The participation of the United States in the war 
and the establishment of an elaborate system of reconstruction hos¬ 
pitals designed to rehabilitate the disabled, necessitate the erection 
of curative workshops and the training of teachers of occupational 
therapy. It is timely, therefore, that serious attention be given to 
the study of occupational therapy in order to determine the qualifi¬ 
cations of its teachers, to ascertain its function, its effect upon war 
invalids, and its social and economic aspects. 













■ 

* 



























PART I. 

THE PROBLEM OF TRAINING TEACHERS. 

The problem of training instructors to meet the war need, for 
teachers capable of directing occupational treatment, must be studied 
first from the point of view of the number involved and the prob¬ 
able number of teachers required; second, special problems en¬ 
countered in dealing with war invalids; third, qualifications of the 
instructors; and fourth, course of training for teachers. 

Canadian experience, upon which the figures for this country may 
be based, estimates that 10 per cent of the men sent overseas are re¬ 
turned unfit for service. Thirty per cent of these are in the hos¬ 
pitals at one time. This means that for every 1,000,000 men sent over¬ 
seas, 100,000 will come back permanently disabled for further mili¬ 
tary service and approximately 30,000 will be in the hospitals at one 
time. The majority of these will be convalescent patients. Four 
instructors are estimated in Canada to every 100 convalescent 
patients. Canada is endeavoring to increase the number of in¬ 
structors. 

In Canada the men go to the shops in relays, and the classes run 
from 16 to 20 men, often, however, considerably less. Allowing 4 
teachers to every 100 men, 1,200 occupational therapeutists would 
be needed for every million men overseas. If the United States 
maintains an over-seas army of 5,000,000, 6,000 instructors will be 
required. For the best results there should be a higher percentage 
than 4 instructors for every 100 men. 

The war invalid presents a problem that is distinct from that of 
the civilian patient or the industrially handicapped. The indus¬ 
trially handicapped person is more frequently alone and unaided. 
The war invalid, on the contrary, has served his country, and the 
Nation stands ready to help him. At liis service are a multitude of 
resources and agencies. In case of serious injury, the pension re¬ 
lieves him from apprehension as to the future. The training during 
convalescence comes at a time when mentally and physically he is 
most responsive, provided lie is stimulated; and the military au¬ 
thority which it is possible to exercise over him, but not over a 
civilian patient, has the advantage of controlling the stubborn and 
willful patient for his own advantage. 

PROBLEMS IN TEACHING THE WAR INVALIDS. 

The records reveal that a few of the patients take the attitude 
that they have done their part and that others may look out for them 
in the future. The majority of the men, however, have self-respect- 

15 


16 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

and confidence; they have made good in the face of danger, and 
return handicapped but determined to make the best of their con¬ 
dition. The care, guidance, and patriotic attitude of the public, 
together with the consciousness on the part of the patient that he has 
served his country, help to simplify the problem of the returned 
soldier or sailor. The instructor who understands how to approach 
the sick, who has sympathy and understanding not only with the 
subnormal but with the peculiar mental attitude of the war in¬ 
valid, and who knows how to talk his own language to him, will 
find the disabled man a responsible and willing student. 

There are, however, certain difficulties in teaching the war invalid 
which do not exist to the same extent in the case of the civilian 
patient. The physical handicap is likely to be serious, and in many 
cases constitutes a permanent disability. The instructor must there¬ 
fore take his past into consideration, aiming to reduce the per¬ 
manent handicap to the minimum and to increase to the maximum 
the remaining faculties of the patient. In addition to the physical 
disability, the mental and nervous conditions brought on by the 
strain of trench warfare complicate the problem. In the case of men 
whose mental and nervous condition appears quite normal there 
will be found to be a mental sluggishness, a lack of concentration, and 
n nervous fatigue which is the logical outcome of the experience of 
modern warfare. Although many of the men are young enough to 
be teachable, the instructor, to be successful, must understand the 
psychological condition of the disabled soldier or sailor. 

Many of the common disabilities involve either amputations or 
inability to use a member. Cheer and helpfulness are needed in the 
exercise of a stump or in teaching a man to be skillful with his left 
hand . 1 In many cases there is no amputation, but the limb has 
ankylosed or remained inactive over a long period, and here again 
time, patience, and encouragement are constantly needed in order to 
develop the first feeble muscular exertions into forceful and produc¬ 
tive movements. 

The fatigue and debility suffered by many of the patients prevent 
long-continued activity, and the instructor must understand the 
therapeutic value of the occupation to these patients, realizing that 
this value can not be 'measured in the shop by the tangible results 
possible to obtain in some cases. 

The administering of occupational treatment in the cases of shell 
shock, war neuroses, and psychoses requires the most expert skill and 
understanding of the delicate balance and relation of motor functions 
to the central nervous system. 

The totally blind and deaf are fortunately few. Sudden blindness 
or deafness coming to an adult renders the victim far more helpless 
than would be the case with a child who has never had these senses, 
or with an adult who has developed a certain adjustment through 
their gradual loss. 


1 The method devised by M. Tamenne, a Belgian refugee, who has educated his left 
hand most proficiently and leaches handwriting, shorthand, and typewriting to those 
who have lost the use of their right hands at the Ecole Professionelle de Blesses at 
Montpellier, is described in the Lancet for Apr. 7, 1917. M. Tamenne emphasizes the 
psychological value of having the pupil write as nearly like his former hand as possible. 
Thus he has an unconscious means of comparison, and when he has imitated his normal 
handwriting he no longer feels disabled. M. Tamenne also notes the necessity of giving 
the patients confidence, and of teaching them to consider their loss not a disability, but 
an inconvenience which may be overcome. 




TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 17 

. The blind 1 must be “ taught to bo blind,” to accept their lot as an 
inconvenience, not us <i disability. Intelligent sympathy, not pity, 
will assist them in becoming independent. Blindness imposes a se¬ 
vere nervous strain which must be safeguarded. The method of 
teaching typewriting and Braille to the blind soldier or sailor is 
the same as teaching any victim of blindness. It must not be sup¬ 
posed, however, as is popularly understood, that the sudden loss of a 
sense develops a corresponding sudden acuteness of the other senses. 
The sudden loss of sight is in itself a paralyzing experience, for in 
addition the hearing has often been dulled by the bursting of shells 
and exposure, and the manual and rough work of army life has 
calloused the hands so that many patients do not possess a sensitive 
touch. 1 he blind soldier or sailor requires a specially trained teacher 
for the blind, and, in addition, one with great patience and apprecia¬ 
tion of the particular handicap of the war invalid. 2 

Under the head of deafness should be included both the dull of 
hearing and the totally deaf. A resolution passed May 11, 1917, at 
the interallied conference held in Paris states that “ lip reading 
should be regarded as the only useful method of reeducating those 
who are totally deaf.” Trained teachers of the deaf arc the only 
ones who should be intrusted with the difficult task of teaching lip 
reading. After first learning the lip picture of a few written words, 
the patient is taught to read forms of speech of the first and second 
articulation point and is then instructed how to distinguish different 
sounds at. the same site of articulation. Enthusiasm must be main¬ 
tained, though the difficulties of lip reading for the adult patients 
must not be minimized. As the patient learns to read lips, simple, 
interesting sentences and stories must be recited, preferably those 
relating to experiences with which he is familiar. 3 The patient 
should be taught from objects, motions, and concrete examples. 
This treatment applies to the totally deaf whose condition is organic. 
There is also a group of extremely deaf war invalids whose difficulty 
is mainly functional. Such cases respond to the occupational treat¬ 
ment of war neuroses. For such patients “a course of soothing 
and fortifying treatment with the judicious application of psycho¬ 
therapeutic methods and organized work may produce unexpectedly 
brilliant results.” 4 

Although the concussions, head injuries, and vicissitudes of the war 
do not cause total deafness in many cases, they often result in de¬ 
fective hearing. The returns from 12 English military hospitals 


1 Resolution 87a, passed May 11, 1017, at the interallied conference, provides that 
“The creation of small workshops near ophthalmic centers and ophthalmic departments 
in hospitals should be made compulsory.” 

2 The great success of Sir Arthur Pearson's work with the blind at St. Dunstan’s, 
England, and the rapidity with which the men learn, has been attributed to the fact 
that he favors blind teachers as instructors. He himself is blind. The men are encour¬ 
aged and stimulated to learn from one who has experienced the same disability. The 
following is an extract from a letter written by Helen Keller to the Aiacrlton-British- 
French-Belgian permanent blind relief war fund : 

“ In order really to console and help the blind, wo must take into account their par¬ 
ticular needs, their peculiar difficulties, their individual capabilities. * * * Their 

lot is so horrible” (the maimed as well as blinded) “that any effort to break through 
their isolation and cheer them must be precious beyond our powers of comprehension. 
* * * If we have the will and courage to face the dark, a gentle warmth steals into 

our fearful hearts. * * * We are so constituted that we can adapt ourselves to 

almost any condition if only a friendly hand is reached out to us, if we only hold fast 
to our faith in the conquering might of the spirit.” 

8 The method of Director Kroiss, of Wurzburg, is described in Recalled to Life, June, 
1917. 

4 A memorandum prepared by Sir Alfred Keogh, G. C. B., director general, army med¬ 
ical service for the Anglo-Belgian committee. 


69359°—18-2 




18 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

show that 1.4 per cent of the patients suffered from some form of 
deafness. Two German Army corps showed a percentage of disease 
or injury to the ear as high as 7.5 in a year. Many of these cases are 
capable of improvement, and total deafness may be prevented. While 
lip reading is desirable for many of these cases, it is important that 
the patients use and exercise wliat hearing they have and take ad¬ 
vantage of all mechanical appliances for the deaf. It is a character¬ 
istic of the deaf to be depressed and expect favors on account of their 
deafness. Since deafness does not prohibit men from entrance into 
many gainful occupations, it is necessary that the instructor be not 
only versed in the technique of instructing the deaf, but that he also 
know how to use and develpo any fragments of hearing left and 
overcome any natural unfavorable tendencies of temperament occa¬ 
sioned by the deafness likely to handicap a man in securing employ¬ 
ment. 


READJUSTMENT TO CIVIL LIFE. 

The instructor of disabled men has an ambitious purpose to accom¬ 
plish in the curative workshop. The military discipline to which the 
men have long been accustomed renders difficult the adjustment to 
civilian life. This period may be made less trying if the instructor 
develops individual thinking and initiative in the patients. The 
recourse to military discipline in the curative workshops should be 
rare. Control of the war invalids should lie in the instructor’s ability 
to interest them, to teach them, and to develop in them regular habits 
of work, habits which are self-disciplinary and which will render 
the men valuable members of civil communities. 

French experience has established very clearly that the selection of the 
right type of teacher is vital to the success of any scheme of training. The 
ordinary technical instructor who understands his subject but not his pupils is 
quite useless. Teaching the physically defective is not perhaps so difficult as 
teaching the mentally defective, but it requires much the same qualities, the 
same inexhaustible patience, the same blending of sympathy and firmness, and, 
above all, the power of appreciating the idiosyncrasies of the different pupils. 
The ideal instructor must know his men as well as his trade. He must study 
their peculiarities and be able to vary his methods so as to get the best out of 
each man . 1 

The fact that the majority of the war invalids will partly, if not 
wholly, recover makes the task of instruction hopeful. Inasmuch, 
however, as their economic independence depends to a large extent 
upon the occupational therapy of the convalescent period, there is 
imposed upon the instructor a heavy responsibility not only to help 
the patient to get hold of himself and thus to facilitate his recovery, 
but to furnish him with that accurate knowledge which will be his" 
vocational equipment. 

Canadian figures show that 80 per cent of the disabled men are 
able to return to their former industry without vocational training, 
that 10 per cent need complete vocational reeducation, and 10 per 
cent partial reeducation. It therefore follows that 80 per cent of 
the men receive no further instruction after leaving the curative 
workshop and that 20 per cent receive varying degrees of vocational 
reeducation. The last opportunity which the Federal Government 


1 L. G. Brock, in American Journal of Care for Cripples, Vol. IV, No. 1. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 19 

will have to assist these 80,000 1 men who need no further vocational 
education in the task of adjusting themselves to civilian life and to 
the demands of industry will be during the period of convalescence 
in the curative workshop. The problem of the curative workshop 
is, then, twofold—first, to provide those occupations which may 
facilitate the patient’s recovery from a therapeutic point of view; 
and, second, to make those occupations so far as possible of such a 
practical type that the patients may add to their industrial equip¬ 
ment. Intelligence and skill is the workingman’s capital. The fact 
that these men are returned unfit for further military service indi¬ 
cates that they are subnormal in some slight measure, if not seriously 
and permanently handicapped. 

In addition to those men who will become employable on hospital 
discharge, there are 20 per cent who can only become so after par¬ 
tial or complete vocational rehabilitation. Since many of these men 
must spend a long convalescence in the curative workshop before 
they are able to take up vocational education, it will save time and 
expense to make the course of instruction in the hospital workshop 
prevocational to the course which the patient will subsequently fol¬ 
low. If such a course can not present the exact processes, either be¬ 
cause of lack of equipment or inability on the patient’s part to per¬ 
form such w T ork at this period of his recovery, it may at least con¬ 
tain allied and academic subjects which will form a valuable back¬ 
ground to technical training. 

In the hospital workshop there will be a few men who w ill never 
be able to compete in industry and for wdiom provision w T ill have to 
be made in special workshops. 

A special workshop should have a rest room with a nurse or doc¬ 
tor in constant attendance. It should have as many comforts as 
possible in the w T ay of special devices, foot and back rests, etc. The 
hours will have to be adjusted to each patient. Attendance should 
be as regular as possible and discipline should be consistent with the 
patient’s physical condition. There should be classes in connection 
w T ith the shop, so that the patients may increase their skill and so that 
other handicapped persons may improve their time while out of 
employment. Every effort should be made by those in authority 
in the special workshop to secure employment for the patients out¬ 
side the shop whenever it is possible to do so. The patients should 
receive a small return for their work, and the character of the work 
should be distinctly commercial and should compete fairly with nor¬ 
mal prices. In all probability these shops can not be self-supporting, 
since labor is necessarily dependent upon the irregularity and uncer¬ 
tainty of men so seriously incapacitated that they can secure employ¬ 
ment in no other w T ay. The deficit incurred by such an establishment 
may well be borne by the Federal Government and regarded as an 
economy m comparison with the older methods of caring for such 
cases in soldiers’ and sailors’ homes, where the men are maintained in 
idleness and subject to mental and moral deterioration. The cases 
for the special workshops are fortunately so rare after the modern 
method of hospital treatment that they are negligible in number. 


1 On the basis of a million men overseas, Canadian figures give 10 per cent, or 100,000 
men, returned unfit for further military service; SO per cent of them, or 80,000, are 
able’to return to industry without vocational education. 



20 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

The Lord Roberts Memorial Workshops, established in London, 
are special workshops for this class of men. In the first year a profit 
of £900 was made after meeting all expenses and after paying £16,000 
in wages to the men and their dependents. 

There will be a few paralytics and bedridden patients who will 
never be able to attend even special workshops for the handicapped. 
Bedside and invalid occupations may pass the time and be a pallia¬ 
tive measure for this last group. 

CLASSIFICATION OF DISABLED MEN ACCORDING TO IMPAIRMENT OF WORK¬ 
ING CAPACITY. 

The following classification of the three groups of patients in the 
curative workshop shows the degrees of disabilities in relation to 
impairment of earning capacity and clarifies the purpose and func¬ 
tion of occupational treatment in relation to each group. 

(a) Men not able to compete in normal occupations under any con¬ 
ditions . —Men sufficiently disabled to prevent competition in any 
normal occupation so that they will be employable only in special 
workshops upon hospital discharge. For this group invalid occupa¬ 
tions and even occupational therapy can be both a palliative measure 
and an economic policy within limited restrictions. It can pass the 
time, keep the patient contented, and later, under supervision in 
special workshops, enable him to be partially self-supporting. 

(b) Men not able to compete after completion of medical treat¬ 
ment. —Men not able to return to former occupations on completion 
of medical treatment but able to become self-supporting in new voca¬ 
tions. Occupational therapy is of the greatest value to this class. 
Not only may it accelerate their recovery, but the training received 
in convalescence may be made a part of the preparation for their new 
vocations. The economy, efficiency, and success of training lie in 
making the therapeutic requirements for mind and body in con¬ 
valescence coincide with preparation for vocational education, if 
not the actual vocational training itself. (It is, of course, under¬ 
stood that the physical condition of patients in the curative work¬ 
shop prevents them from attending regular vocational schools.) 

( c) Men able to compete after completion of medical treatment .— 
Men able to return to former vocations on the completion of medical 
treatment. Regulated activity and wholesome habit of work, is 
designed chiefly to facilitate recovery. Whenever it is possible, gen¬ 
eral education classes and practice in the workshop should increase 
the patient's economic equipment by greater knowledge of the occu¬ 
pation with which he is already familiar, and to which he intends 
to return when cured. While many of the patients will be learning 
to perform their old occupations better, many others must go through 
the torturous period of strict reeducation, not in the sense of learning 
a new occupation, but in learning to perform an already familiar 
one under severe limitations. 

It is now clear that there are three different kinds of classes in the 
curative workshops at the same time. Moreover the length of time 
each patient may work, the extent to which he may exert himself, 
and the kind of exercise prescribed must be determined in each case 
by the individual. Mr. T. B. Kidner, vocational secretary of the 
Military Hospitals Commission of Canada, has pointed out the desir- 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 21 

ability of having the classes separated not only according to subject, 
but according to the earnestness with which the men may work. 
Men who are capable of applying themselves to serious vocational 
study, although still in the curative workshop, should not be mixed 
with those who are taking training merely for its therapeutic value 
or with those who are incapable of making even a fair degree of 
progress. For instance, many of the men may not be able to apply 
themselves seriously during convalescence, whereas a few may be able 
to work fairly hard and receive great benefit from a vocational course 
leading directly to a trade. Such patients must not be held back or 
they will develop lazy habits of work and cost the Government 
unnecessary expense by lengthening the period of training. 

The curative workshop must be a departmental institution in which 
there are many occupations affording a wealth of choice both from 
the medical and economic points of view. This is necessitated by the 
different interests, possibilities and handicaps of the men. In many 
cases a rudimentary r or even a higher education is advisable. In 
other cases there should be classes in commercial education, printing, 
drafting, salesmanship, agricultural pursuits, motor mechanics, and 
skilled trades. While the instruction must be individual and the con¬ 
dition and fatigue of the patient must form the basis of the teaching 
in each case, those men should be grouped together of whom the same 
relative degree of progress can be expected; 

It is therefore evident that the director must be familiar with the 
instruction of these groups and with a wide range of subjects. He 
must necessarily possess the qualifications of the manual-training 
teacher. The scheme of training of the men should be organized 
so as to train large groups of people at one place rather than 
small and scattered groups at many places. This will make pos¬ 
sible effective use of the coterie of teachers who are specialists in 
their lines. The common practice of schools with schemes of recita¬ 
tions and assignment of work can be followed on the basis of what 
the different teachers are able to contribute. 

The chart on page 22 indicates the stages of occupational treatment 
and teacher training in relation to each group of men. It shows the 
present resources for training each group, the sources from which 
teachers may be recruited and the practical experience necessary for 
each group." 





Stages of occupational treatment in hospitals and teacher training . 


22 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 




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TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 23 


ORGANIZATION. 

This country is confronted with the task of preparing teachers for 
each group of disabled men. Aside from invalid occupations, little 
attention has been given in the United States to the various phases of 
this great problem. Not only are few teachers available to start the 
work in the first hospitals, but there are few people experienced in 
the preparation of such teachers. Some hospitals have the begin¬ 
nings of equipment for invalid occupations but few are provided 
with curative workshops. Furthermore, this country has no back¬ 
ground of experience for dealing with the subject, and for this reason 
it will be necessary at the outset to resort to Canadian hospitals for 
observation and practice work. The knowledge of the allies was 
gained from actual experience with the problem, which has been 
costly in time, money, and wasted human efficiency. 

Such a comprehensive plan as is demanded by the present emer¬ 
gency can only be met by the Federal Government. In no other way 
can a uniform standard of qualification of teachers be secured. 
Private institutions, with their inadequate hospital facilities, school 
equipment, and lack of teaching staff, are incapable of meeting the 
situation. Moreover, since these institutions will be under the direc¬ 
tion of some agency of the Federal Government yet to be determined, 
it is imperative that the classes preparing teachers of disabled men 
should be controlled, directed, and supported by those directing their 
future work. 

In order to meet the difficulty of preparing people for occupations 
that are not at the present time followed in this country, the principle 
should be asserted that these people will be trained to follow a voca¬ 
tion, and that that vocation is the teaching of the handicapped. 
Every principle already set up in this country—such as, for example, 
those established under the Smith-Hughes Act with regard to train¬ 
ing for vocations—holds true for the training of teachers of disabled 
men. 

These principles of vocational education are: 

(1) Effective'preparation for a vocation requires, first, practice; 
second, experience, with proper theory. 

(2) In order to determine what shall be taught persons preparing 
for any vocation, including teaching, the demands of the occupation 
are the first consideration. The organization of the work, the course 
of study, and methods employed should be constantly determined and 
shaped by this consideration. Only in this way can training be made 
direct and effective. 

(3) In any scheme of training for a vocation every requirement 
of the occupation should be dealt with in the course. This may 
be accomplished either by setting up entrance requirements of such 
a character as to insure that the student already possesses a certain 
amount of training. This means, for example, that if it be deter¬ 
mined that instructors of disabled men must have a certain amount 
of manual, industrial, trade, or technical skill and knowledge, hos¬ 
pital observation and experience, or practical experience in invalid 
occupations or curative workshop; or else experience in the vocational 
education of disabled men, together with an elementary knowledge 
of the medical, mental, economic, and sociological problems involved; 


24 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

then this training must either be given in the course or as much of it 
required before entrance as is practicable. In order to accomplish 
results, courses which are short must necessarily have high entrance 
requirements. 

(4) It is a well-founded law of psychology that a teacher can not 
successfully confer on others that which he himself has never ex¬ 
perienced. Vocational education the world over has come to rec¬ 
ognize that instructors of vocations must themselves be experienced 
in the vocation which they teach. This principle has been written 
into the Federal law. It is recognized by every agricultural and 
mechanical college in America, and by every private and public 
trade, technical, and engineering school. Not to observe it would 
be to violate a quarter of a century of experience in vocational educa¬ 
tion gained on both sides of the Atlantic. 

Applied to the teachers of disabled men, this means that they 
must be persons of experience in the subjects which they teach, and 
in addition possess special preparation qualifying them to meet the 
particular problem of the handicapped men. The first task confront¬ 
ing the United States at this time is to select and train the teachers 
of teachers of disabled men, and allow them practical experience in 
Canadian hospitals. 

SELECTION OF INSTRUCTORS FOR INVALID OCCUPATIONS. 

The first instructors to be trained should be carefully selected from 
the standpoint of their education, previous experience, and occupa¬ 
tional or technical knowledge. They should be chosen with the idea 
that they are to become directors of other training centers established 
by the Federal Government. They should meet as far as possible the 
different entrance requirements for teaching the various groups of 
men as outlined in the chart on page 22. 

Teachers of invalid occupations and simple occupations may be 
found who have had theoretical training and practical experience. 
Technical and skilled instruction is not so much needed in teaching 
invalid occupations, though the instruction so far as it goes should 
be correct, as is tact, resourcefulness, patience, contact with the sick 
and a knowledge of the medical problems involved. Before such 
teachers will be permitted to direct the work of invalid occupations 
and simple occupations in the first Government hospitals for the dis¬ 
abled, or to train other teachers for teaching the disabled, they must 
qualify in a short intensive course of not more than four weeks 
offered by the Federal Government. 

SELECTION OF INSTRUCTORS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

The teachers of academic subjects of an elementary nature will 
be found in the ranks of educated men and women, especially those 
who have had teaching experience. A course of four weeks’ study 
of the medical and social problems involved in teaching the dis¬ 
abled soldiers, together with practical experience in teaching the 
subnormal, will serve as preparation for this group. 

Teachers of prevocational and vocational subjects in the curative 
workshops may be recruited from manual training teachers, from 
men who have had technical knowledge in the teaching profession, 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 25 

and from the ranks of skilled workmen, foremen, and superin¬ 
tendents who are quick to learn and have developed teaching ability 
by helping their fellows. 

Such a group of picked men 1 will be able to take an emergency 
course. The course of study should include five lectures each week, 
a written test on the lectures and correlated reading on some phase 
of the problem of rehabilitation. The lecture period should be fol¬ 
lowed by classroom recitation or an informal discussion of the sub¬ 
ject, including the reference reading. The student should be 
required to keep a notebook of both lectures and reading. Each 
student should have a weekly conference with the instructor and 
should understand thoroughly the corrections on the written test. 
The final examination, weekly tests, notebooks, and recitations should 
form the basis for marking. 

The following course of study is divided into weeks according to 
the subjects covered. It will be followed by practical experience in 
Canadian military hospitals. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 

I. The problem of rehabilitation. 

1. Survey of problem of rehabilitation from the wounding in the 
trench to placement in industry. 

2. The three stages of rehabilitation: Invalid occupations, occu¬ 
pational therapy, and vocational education. Function and scope of 
each. 

3. Medical, social, and economic problems to be encountered in 
rehabilitation. 

4. Psychology of the disabled soldier. 

Discussion and reading should develop the point of view neces¬ 
sary for the instructor. The reading should include accounts of 
rehabilitation in foreign countries, selected chapters from One Thou¬ 
sand Homeless Men, by Solonberger; Social Service in Hospitals, 
by Ida Cannon; and The Work of Our Hands, by Herbert J. Hall. 

"II. Study of occupational therapy in convalescent cases of inter¬ 
nal diseases, injuries, and postsurgical treatment (not orthopedic). 

1. Physiological effect of muscular activity on the heart, lungs, 
circulation, digestion, etc. 

2. Important points in the medical treatment of heart trouble, 
tuberculosis, and common diseases. 

3. Relation of occupation to each of the above disabilities. 

4. Relation of work and fatigue and indications of fatigue. 

Reading should include references from Fatigue, by Mosso, re¬ 
searches by Prof. Amar, and medical authorities on various diseases, 
etc. 

III. Study of occupational therapy in relation to orthopedic treat¬ 
ment. 

1. Physiology and anatomy of bones, tendons, muscles, ligaments, 
and peripheral nerves. 

2. Relation of occupational therapy to orthopedic surgery, physio¬ 
therapy, mechano-therapeutics, and massage. Danger of wrong ex¬ 
ercise or strain. 


i “ Mon ” is used in its generic sense. 



26 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

3. Occupational therapy in cases of amputations, exercise of 
stumps, study of Amur and other tests, etc. 

4. Value of exercise in reeducating disused and stiffened parts. 

5. Exercise in spite of permanent ankylosis, and in relation to 
prosthetic appliances. 

Reading: References from the American Journal of Care for 
Cripples, from Prof. Amar’s researches, and selections from medical 
journals. 

IV. Study of occupational therapy in mental and nervous dis¬ 
orders. 

1. Study of the central nervous system. 

2. Pathology of neuroses and psychoses. 

3. Study of motor functions in relation to nervous system. 

4. Effect of occupation, fixing the attention, interesting the patient, 
directing channels of thought, observing methods of work and ways 
of cooperating with the physician. 

Reading: References from Mental Hygiene, and writings of Drs. 
J. Madison Taylor, William R. Dunton, jr., Herbert J. Hall, Thomas 
W. Salmon, etc. 

V. Technique of occupational therapy. 

1. How to relax, stimulate, and coordinate the brain; how to con¬ 
centrate the mind; how to restore self-confidence and overcome de¬ 
pression, indifference, and excitability. 

2. General exercises, exercise of certain parts, and kinesiology. 

In addition to reading from selected medical authorities, the 

student must prepare a list of processes from agricultural or com¬ 
mercial or industrial pursuits which may be suitable for relaxing, 
stimulating, coordinating, or concentrating the mind, and which 
may be used to restore self-confidence, overcome depression, indiffer¬ 
ence, and excitability. The student must select processes from one 
of the a v ove pursuits which will serve for general exercise and for 
exercise of special parts. 

VI. Study of occupations in relation to occupational therapy. 

1. Analysis of industrial, commercial, and agricultural occupa¬ 
tions in terms of therapeutic values. 

2. Modification of processes, special devices and tools for special 
needs and fatigue prevention. 

The student must list common occupations in agricultural, com¬ 
mercial, and industrial pursuits, with reference to those occupations 
particularly suitable for various disabilities and combinations of dis¬ 
abilities, with possible machine devices and tool modifications for 
handicaps. 

VII. Methods of teaching. 

1. Principles involved in teaching handicapped persons and dis¬ 
abled soldiers. 

2. Methods of presenting processes and occupations. 

3. Discipline and control of patients in curative workshops. 

The student should be given imaginary cases of disabilities with 
phj^sician’s instruction for treatment and the description of the 
patient’s education and experience. From this he must present a 
plan for occupational treatment, following the physician’s instruc¬ 
tion, and developing the patient toward the vocation suggested by 
the vocational expert. The student must show not only the patient’s 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 27 

occupation in the curative workshop but the method of .presentation 
and development of instruction. These should furnish subjects for 
class discussion. 

VIII. The curative workshop. 

1. Equipment, upkeep, management, record keeping, and account¬ 
ing. 

2. Physiological value of occupational therapy. 

3. Psychological value of occupational therapy. 

The student should list equipment for different curative workshops 
and show diagrams of arrangement and prepare sample work charts. 

As the continued flow of returning men necessitates additional 
instructors they may be recruited from the ranks of the disabled men 
themselves. There will be among the patients men with previous 
technical experience who have shown marked capacity in the curative 
workshop and who possess teaching ability. These will make the 
ablest instructors, provided they fulfill the requirements of teachers 
of occupational therapy. They understand more clearly than a 
civilian instructor the point of view of the returned man. The ex¬ 
ample, moreover, of one who has himself successfully passed through 
the experience of war and has overcome a handicap is a constant 
source of encouragement to the student patients. It has been said 
that no one better than a mutile can train a mutile. While a handi¬ 
cap overcome is a definite asset to a teacher of disabled men, and 
while many of the handicapped will undobutedly become teachers, a 
handicap must not be regarded as an asset offsetting other indispen¬ 
sable qualifications for an efficient teacher and leader of men. 

The French method of using the reconstruction hospitals as train¬ 
ing centers for instructors may be adopted with profit. The emer¬ 
gency course as outlined for the first instructors for returned soldiers 
may be modified in the new training centers and many theoretical 
points abandoned for actual practice teaching. 

Before competently trained people will engage in this profession, 
and especially in the present war emergency, they must be assured 
adequate remuneration. 

Mr. L. G. Brock, in telling of the importance of adequate teachers 
for the convalescent hospitals of France, says: 

It follows, of course, that if great demands are to be made on the instructors 
they must be carefully selected and adequately paid. The best possible men 
must be secured without regard to cost, and those who fail to develop the requi¬ 
site qualities must be vigorously weeded out. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS FOR DIRECTING OCCUPA¬ 
TIONAL THERAPY. 

The courses of training as outlined are emergency courses only, de¬ 
signed to relieve the shortage of occupational teachers for the men 
who will return disabled from the front. The courses do not attempt 
to meet the problem of providing occupational therapy for civilian 
handicapped persons, who will in all probability outnumber the war 
victims by a large majority. Such training can best be provided in 
institutions offering long and thorough courses. 

Since occupational therapy dovetails in many cases with medical 
treatment and either vocational training or employment, it is funda¬ 
mentally necessary for the occupational therapeutist to have a back¬ 
ground^ both medicine and industry besides the actual knowledge 




28 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

and technique of the profession. Many of the failures of occupational 
therapy in the past may be attributed to the fact that it has been 
attempted by those equipped with a background of only medicine or 
industry. This accounts for the lack of shop management and prac¬ 
tical training when occupational therapy is directed by doctor or 
nurse; and equally for the lack of the patient’s interest or therapeutic 
results when directed by a technical expert. The medical aspect of 
the problem is skillfully manipulated in the hands of the doctor or 
nurse, but they are usually ignorant of the variety of industrial proc¬ 
esses, the demands of competition, and the economic conditions to 
which the patient must adjust himself. The shop boss or tech¬ 
nician, on the other hand, fails to understand the connection between 
physical debility and impaired capacity. However well his shop 
may be organized or however expert his skill, he will fail utterly with 
the handicapped unless he has a medical and social background, an 
intelligent sympathy, and an understanding of the psychology of the 
handicapped. 

An economic background is as essential for the occupational thera¬ 
peutist as a medical and industrial background. He must know the 
relative value of commodities, how to effect economies in purchasing, 
the danger of an over-stimulated market, what markets are de¬ 
pendent upon fads, or the fickleness of the public. The danger of 
turning men away from real vocations by successful but superficial 
results in the curative workships may be thus avoided. 

The director of occupational therapy must know something of 
several occupations so that he may have a variety of resources with 
which to attract the patient’s attention. He must have a first-hand 
and thorough acquaintance with at least one industrial occupation 
and a general knowledge of several others, so that he, if the unit is 
sufficiently large, or his assistants will be able to hold the patient’s 
interest and develop him in practical lines over a considerable period 
of time. He must know how to restore self-confidence in the dis-, 
couraged, how to awaken ambition in the disheartened, and how to 
develop perseverance in the restless. Quick results are necessary 
for the encouragement of some, painstaking accuracy for the progress 
of others. The therapeutic value of a process is gone for some pa¬ 
tients the moment they master it, and recovery is measured by the 
systematic change from process to process, each demanding more 
initiative or concentration. Continued practice, long after the mas¬ 
tery of the process, gives to other patients just that assurance and 
self-reliance necessary for recovery. The occupational therapeutist 
must know the functions of muscles, how they may be exercised, how 
the brain may be stimulated or relaxed, and how the coordination of 
body and mind may be produced. 

The faculty for learning among the mature handicapped is slow; 
here infinite patience is required. Overexertion is particularly to 
be guarded against, and only the medical authorities should de¬ 
termine at what point it is safe to stimulate and force the patient. 
The best medical treatment may be nullified by strain or by failure to 
take proper exercise. It is, therefore, of the utmost necessity that 
occupational Iherapy be in the hands of one specially trained to 
understand these conditions and to carry out intelligently the doc¬ 
tor’s instructions. Each disability has" its particular limitations, 
possibilities, and methods of adjustment. The occupational tliera- 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 29 

peutist must be familiar with these as well as with the types of 
work which the patients will be able to perform on discharge, and 
the conditions under which it is advisable that they work. The 
cardiacs, for instance, must not be subjected to sudden muscular ex¬ 
ertion, nor the tubercular to dust and fumes. The patients must b<j 
trained for those vocations in which their disabilities will be re¬ 
duced to a minimum and their faculties increased to the maximum. 

There is at present no standard course of training or qualifications 
for directors of occupational therapy. Several institutions give 
courses, but none are-complete or adequate as training centers. Dr. 
William Rush Dunton, jr., president of the National Society for the 
Promotion of Occupational Therapy, has gathered together the opin¬ 
ions of those best qualified to speak in an article entitled “ Training 
of occupational teachers and directors,” published in the Maryland 
Psychiatric Quarterly for July, 1917. The consensus of opinion is 
that personality is the first qualification of a teadier or director of 
occupational therapy. The peculiar problems involved in working 
with the handicapped necessitate force, resourcefulness, tact, sym¬ 
pathy, and courage, and these can not be acquired in .any course of 
training, however elaborate. Miss Gunderson, of the Bloomingdale 
Hospital, has said: u The successful occupation teacher or director 
owes more to her tact and personality than to her skill in crafts.” 

While personality is a foremost consideration in the selection of a 
teacher or director, it can not compensate for either lack of training 
or technique. Since occupational therapy is more and more becoming 
a part of hospital equipment, it is opening a new profession, and one 
for which the most careful training is necessary. The following 
course is suggested for the training of directors. 

A higli-school course is prerequisite. The course requires four 
years, the equivalent of two years of college and two years of dis¬ 
tinctly technical study. 

The time of the first two years is equally divided between academic 
and technical subjects. The purpose of the academic subjects is to 
give the proper background for the more technical work. These 
subject's include chemistry, physiology, anatomy, English, and eco¬ 
nomics. Physics and geometry must be elected, if not offered for col¬ 
lege entrance. The technical" subjects include mechanical drawing, 
design, and crafts. The course in design must be of the standard re¬ 
quired for training professional, designers. Not less than six hours 
a week for two years is required in design, of which one hour is a lec¬ 
ture on theory, three hours’ practice in abstract designing, and two 
hours in practical designing. Six hours a week for two years is re¬ 
quired for crafts. The first year includes the principles of several 
crafts—weaving, willow and raffia work, stenciling, block printing, 
leather work, and metal work. The second year includes a detailed 
study of metal work. Metal work is selected because it holds the 
greatest number of possibilities in the use of tools and processes, and 
is more closely connected than other crafts with actual mechanical 
operations. The work includes complicated and intricate problems, 
so that the student may acquire skill, touch, and technique, and the 
general principles of hard and soft soldering, casting, contraction, 
expansion, and annealing of metals, forging, and electric wiring. 

On the completion of the first two years the student has a back¬ 
ground and a technical knowledge of design and craft. The purpose 


30 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

of the following two years is to provide special training for directing 
occupational therapy. One semester of the junior year should be 
spent either as a volunteer worker under a competent factory inspec¬ 
tor, or, better still, on the pay roll doing factory w 7 ork itself. No 
part of the student’s training is more valuable than actual knowledge 
of lathes, machinery, quantity and quality of output, and industrial 
demands. The principles of the woodworking, metal, and building 
and electrical trades should be studied both in theory and practice. 
The academic subjects required for the remaining semester include 
psychology and sociology, together with a carefully selected list of 
medical reading relating to cause and effect, diagnosis, prognosis, and 
the special treatment of the most frequent disabilities with which the 
student will come in contact. 

It is assumed that the student has already mastered the principles 
of design and is ready in the junior semester for a course in com¬ 
mercial design. Xhe emphasis in the crafts is upon the making of a 
marketable product, the study of costs, overhead expense, economy of 
purchases, shop management, and utilization of waste products. The 
principles involved in commercial education are surveyed and re- 
ord and bookkeeping are also studied in detail. One or tw T o half 
days weekly in the semester are spent as a volunteer worker in the 
social-service department of a city hospital. The student receives his 
first contact with hospital patients under direction, and he becomes 
acquainted with their problems and methods of solution. It is desir¬ 
able that he find employment for some of these patients, so that he 
may have the experience of approaching employers, encountering 
the difficulties of placing these people, and learning the tact and com¬ 
mon sense necessary in the “ follow work.” 

At the close of the third year the student’s theoretical and practical 
background is complete. He has an economic perspective, a first¬ 
hand knowledge of industry, a medical understanding of the relation 
between pathological conditions and impaired capacity, and has had 
personal contact with the subnormal. He has a knowledge of com¬ 
mercial design and of the tools and processes not only in hand but in 
machine industries as well. 

The first semester of the fourth year gives the opportunity for the 
study of pedagogy and for more medical reading, with special study 
of fatigue, function of regulated activity, and the mechanism of re¬ 
covery through the psychology of occupation. The purpose is not to 
give the student sufficient medical knowledge to enable him to deter¬ 
mine the treatment by occupation, but to enable him to carry out in¬ 
structions intelligently and to cooperate in securing the results the 
doctor wishes achieved. 

“ The physician may prescribe occupation in a somewhat general 
sense, as, indeed, he might prescribe in the diet more protein and less 
carbohydrate; the decision as to whether it shall mean a dropped egg 
or a bit of beefsteak, less potato Or less toasted bread, falls more 
naturally to the province of the nurse.” 1 

While the doctor may recommend a sedative, or a stimulating occu¬ 
pation, or active exercise for certain stiffened joints, it is left to the 
skilled occupational therapeutist to decide whether the desired results 


1 Invalid Occupations, by Susan E. Tracy. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 31 

'will be best accomplished and best suited to the vocational needs of 
tlie patient by typewriting, motor mechanics, drafting, planning, or 
agriculture. 

The emphasis in design and crafts in the senior year lies in methods 
of teaching rather than in technical proficiency. The last semester 
of the fourth year is reserved for practice teaching under the direc¬ 
tion of an experienced occupational therapeutist. 

Such a course as outlined suggests ideal conditions in its cooper¬ 
ation with factory inspector and the hospital departments of social 
service and occupational therapy. If such conditions do not exist, 
the course of study might be shortened to three years and the student 
required to have some teaching and factory experience before becom¬ 
ing a director. The course might be shortened still further to ad¬ 
vantage provided the student has knowledge of the type of institu¬ 
tion and patients with which he would come in contact. 

For instance, it would not be necessary for the student to have a 
knowledge of factory processes and industry i/ his patients are in a 
private sanitarium recruited from the leisure or professional classes. 
On the other hand, if his patients belong to the working classes, and 
come from the farm, the skilled or the unskilled trades, he might 
eliminate the design and crafts from his course of training and 
specialize more particularly on the therapeutic cflect of industrial 
occupations and vocational education. A student already possessing 
technical knowledge or medical knowledge would be able to shorten 
the above course to a large extent. 

Both men and women may become expert directors and assistants 
of occupational therapy. When classes are separated it is desirable 
that women teach women and men teach men. When, however, occu¬ 
pational therapy is given to really sick men, as occurs in many in¬ 
stances, women with the natural ability of the nurse have been found 
to make the ablest instructors. When men are able to follow a fairly 
regular course, and especially when it has a technical value, it is 
expedient that the instruction be given by men who are proficient in 
their lines. 

Such a general course as outlined would necessarily prepare the 
student to be a jack-of-all-trades. This is desirable in the case of 
training of the occupational therapeutist who is unassisted and who 
must offer a wide range of activities. It is equally desirable in the 
training of the director of occupational therapy of a unit sufficiently 
large to include several assistants. The assistants should have spe¬ 
cialized training in different lines. While they should be familiar 
with the kind of instruction necessary for the subnormal, they do not 
require the wide background described in the course of training for 
directors. Assistants may be recruited from the ranks of competent 
nurses with a knowledge of tools, or technicians with a knowledge of 
the problems involved in teaching the handicapped. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF TEACHERS FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

In addition to the requirements of the regular vocational instruc¬ 
tor, the instructor of the disabled soldier must know those points in 
which his soldier pupils will be different from the normal pupils to 
which he is accustomed. The shop instructor, even more than the 
instructor of related or academic subjects, must be highly skilled in 


32 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR, OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

his trade for t-lie reason that many of the men will have had experi¬ 
ence in that trade and that, unlike the raw youth in vocational classes, 
they will be critical and unwilling to learn from one not markedly 
their superior. As a rule, the boys of vocational education age are 
eager, quick, and teachable, whereas many of the returned soldiers, 
though young enough to have receptive minds, are of maturer age. 
The fact that they have been returned unfit for further military serv¬ 
ice indicates that in some way, either by lessened vitality or perma¬ 
nent handicap, they are below par. Moreover, the experience of war 
has been a mentally paratyzing experience and the instructor must 
be patient and must understand his pupil. In addition to intelligent 
sympathy, the instructor must maintain regularity and meet the 
requirements of the vocational school, for vocational education leads 
directly to employability. The patients do not enter the vocational 
classes until the medical authorities have discharged them or else 
state that their physical condition will permit a regular course of 
study. 

The duty of the instructor, aside from giving the technical infor¬ 
mation, is to take the patients, after their periods of convalescence, 
in which the demands of occupational therapy may not always have 
been as stringent as desirable and prepare them to meet the full and 
regular requirements of industry. Inasmuch as up to the time of 
discharge the patients have been more or less constantly under mili¬ 
tary discipline, and since they must enter industry as civilians the 
period of preparation for civilian life coincides with the period of 
vocational education. The instructor may be of valuable assistance 
during this trying time by maintaining a discipline in the school that 
is initiated and participated in by the patients themselves. He must, 
moreover, teach them to be self-reliant, to think for themselves, to 
work hard, and to observe hygienic rules of living which are self- 
imposed rather than commanded or ordered. 

The best vocational instructors must be selected for training the 
disabled patients, not only because they require the best possible in¬ 
struction but because the problem of teaching them is particularly 
difficult and important. 


EQUIPMENT. 

(a) Invalid occupations ,—The equipment for invalid occupations 
is necessarily restricted to that which may be used in bed or a chair, 
and is of a very light character. Bed tables, slanting desk, and a 
bed bench are necessary. The slanting desk should be tilted to any 
angle which may accommodate the restricted positions of patients 
sustaining fractures, injuries, and deformities. The bed bench allows 
a small vise, and not only permits many occupations otherwise im¬ 
possible for lack of the strength required in holding, but allows oc¬ 
cupations for the one-armed. 

The occupations possible cover a wide range, depending upon the 
patient’s education and inclination. A typewriter will, enable those 
patients who have become blinded or who have lost the use of their 
right hand to write letters to their friends, pass the time, and exercise 
stiffened fingers. . Typewriting is an occupation of interest and 
profit. Other patients will be interested in the elementary principles 
of bookkeeping, salesmanship, mechanical drawing, mathematics, etc., 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 33 


while those without a rudimentary education may be benefited by 
learning to read, write, and figure. Whittling, bookkeeping, net and 
hammock making, leather work, and other light work requiring such 
equipment as small looms, hammer, pliers, paste, scissors, knives, 
raffia, twine, rules, paper cutters, letter presses, etc., are practical for 
invalid occupations. 

(6) Occupational therapy .—Crafts, commercial training, educa¬ 
tion, and drafting require only a small outlay of equipment. As oc¬ 
cupational therapy, however, attempts to give training of a practical 
type and to provide vocational education wherever possible in the 
trades, the equipment must permit at least the elementary stages of 
such training. The average small hospital will not be abie to afford 
either an elaborate or extensive equipment for this purpose. In fact, 
even technical schools, with a variety of equipment, are not always 
able to teach all of the skilled trades, and the student must, in many 
instances, get his final instruction in the factory itself. Elementary 
processes, foundation work, and related subjects may be selected for 
trade training for the hospital unable to provide an extensive equip¬ 
ment. Simple processes, with a theoretical knowledge and an im¬ 
proved general education, are of practical value. 

The problem of equipment is simplified in large county or State 
institutions. Not only is a large equipment needed to accommodate 
the patients, but the institution may economically afford to specialize 
in one or more industries giving real trade training and finding a 
market in other institutions as well as providing necessities for the 
institution itself. The repair and upkeep of a group of large institu¬ 
tions under direction furnish valuable training. Besides the oppor¬ 
tunity of a possible machine shop, woodworking shop, farm, and care 
of building and motor trucks, printing may not only teach the essen¬ 
tials of the printing trade, but provide the printing of all record 
blanks, notices, reports, etc., for the hospital, as well as the printing 
of other county or State material. 

Since the reconstruction hospitals will be located in different sec¬ 
tions of the country and the patients will be sent to the hospitals suited 
to their needs nearest their homes, it will not be necessary to install 
all lines of occupations in industry, commerce, and agriculture in 
every hospital. For instance, the hospital in the Middle West would 
need agricultural opportunities rather than the textile trades of New 
England. Those occupations should be taught which are typical in 
the area to which the patients will return. Moreover, it is advisable 
to separate the patients according as their disabilities require special 
medical and occupational treatment. For instance, the blind are 
grouped together so that they may have the benefit of skilled oph¬ 
thalmologists and the instruction of those specially trained for teach¬ 
ing the blind. They will, moreover, be taught only those occupations 
which it is practical for the blind to follow. The same is true of the 
deaf and the tubercular. It is desirable that the tubercular and 
gassed patients should have work of a light character, free from dust 
and fumes, and requiring deep breathing. Out-of-door work can bo 
found for cured tubercular patients in rural communities or for those 
who wish to go to the land, while light work out of doors or in well- 
ventilated factories and offices may be secured for city patients. 
Only those industries which exist in a given area and which are suit- 

69359 0 —18 - 3 



34 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR. OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

able for orthopedic patients, or which are capable of modification, 
need be offered in the orthopedic curative workshop. Cases of neu¬ 
rasthenia, shell shock, and insanity should not only be separated from 
other cases, but from one another. Inasmuch as complicated and 
noisy machinery and intricate processes are not adapted to neuras¬ 
thenic or shell-shock cases, the equipment for these curative work¬ 
shops may be comparatively simple, including gardening and outdoor 
-work, hand industries, drafting, blue-print making, general educa¬ 
tion, and only elementary stages in shop work. Hopeless insanity 
may be provided for in the regular asylums. The general hospital 
would have to provide the greatest range of equipment in its curative 
workshop, but it could be limited to the industries in the district and 
omit those occupations particularly suited to the blind, deaf, tuber¬ 
cular, etc. 

The upkeep of the reconstruction hospitals, all repairs, carpentry, 
glazing, plumbing, machine work, driving, care of motor trucks and 
gardens should be performed by the patients under direction as part 
of the course of training. 

The responsibility of the Government to provide practical occupa¬ 
tional therapy for the returning of the men to the industries from 
which they were taken will necessitate equipment suited to the pur¬ 
poses and needs for training the disabled soldiers in the curative 
workshop. The problem of equipping the curative workshop is 
unlike the problem of equipping the private, the county, or State 
institutions, where the outlay in expense must be considered in rela¬ 
tion to possible returns from the shop, and where many of the 
patients, while benefited by occupational therapy, will never be able 
to follow wage-earning occupations. Unlike many of the patients 
in these public institutions, the majority of the disabled soldiers will 
be able to follow wage-earning occupations, provided that the occu¬ 
pational therapy designed for them is immediate and practical. It 
is a far-sighted economy to return men to industry by training 
them to be self-supporting and independent economic units, and to 
attain this end the Federal Government is justified in making a 
large expenditure for the equipment of the curative workshop. The 
problem of equipping the curative workshop becomes then one of 
intelligent expenditure and cooperation with other Federal agencies, 
so that the equipment may provide practical training in itself or 
else be of such a type as to prepare for subsequent vocational or 
factory training, which in turn prepares for employment. 



PART II. 

FUNCTIONS OF OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


It has been long known that treatment by occupation has a definite 
therapeutic value. Originally the benefit was supposed to be due 
entirely to the fact that such treatment “killed time” for the 
patient, but later it was found to have a definite effect on the mind 
and spirit, and consequently a favorable reaction on the physical 
condition. It was frequently observed that, while the patient’s mind 
was absorbed in mastering an occupation in the hospital workshop, 
his interest was awakened, his ambition stimulated, his morbid and 
brooding thoughts eliminated, and his hope and self-confidence were 
restored. More recent analysis of the function of occupational 
therapy discloses the fact that, in addition to producing mental 
changes, it may also impose certain bodily changes. 

Although the fields of the mind and the body are fundamentally 
related, occupational therapy may be considered from the point of 
view, first, of psychological functions and, second, of physiological 
functions. 


PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS. 

In every functional disturbance, in addition to disorders of the 
central nervous system, there is a mental reaction. Pain, anemia, 
impairment of circulation, and sense impressions and emotions, such 
as anxiety and depression, are all communicated to the brain, which 
may be either highly sensitive or dull and apathetic, often showing 
such extreme symptoms as ennui, melancholia, restlessness, morbid 
introspection, discouragement, and fear. In ennui the tonicity of 
the muscles is affected so that they actually contract less strongly 
and develop less force. In melancholia the general physique, and 
especially the heart, is acted upon. Restlessness, or so-called nerv¬ 
ousness and lack of concentration, is muscular activity of a wasteful 
typo and gives rise to harmful fatigue. Morbid introspection pro¬ 
duces a particularly vicious cycle of thinking, since continued atten¬ 
tion focussed on any particular part of the body may actually in¬ 
crease its morbid condition. Discouragement and fear have a 
tendency to impair circulation, which may produce serious results 
upon the heart, digestive apparatus, and muscles. 

It lies within the province of occupational therapy to regulate and 
improve some of these conditions. Ennui and melancholia, for ex¬ 
ample. may give place to a more normal state when the patient 
has become interested in an occupation. Inasmuch as those who 
suffer from ennui and melancholia are particularly susceptible to 
fatigue, the occupation chosen for .their cure should be simple, and 
the treatment should be given in short periods in order to avoid 

35 


36 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

♦ 

undue fatigue. Variety and more complicated processes are neces¬ 
sary, however, as the patient improves, and gradually the treatment 
should require increasing concentration. Again, restlessness, nerv¬ 
ousness, and lack of concentration require the focussing of the 
attention upon constructive work. An occupation of a sedative or 
relaxing type which may have a certain degree of monotony about 
it which is not exacting and which may be pursued for long periods 
of time has a tendency to normalize. For the morbidly introspective 
patient an occupation must be selected wdiich will turn away his 
accustomed line of thinking and at the same time offer sufficient inter¬ 
est and variety to hold his attention. Recovery may frequently be 
measured by the greater complexity of occupations undertaken, 
each demanding greater application than the one before it. Dis¬ 
couragement and fear may be overcome by a simple or monotonous 
occupation, provided the patient masters it and continues to perform 
it with satisfaction to himself and with growing self-confidence and 
hope. 

The mechanism of mental recovery by occupational therapy is 
simple. “ But one idea can occupy the focus of attention at a given 
time .” 1 In other words, an occupation which requires the patient’s 
attention excludes, at least temporarily, all harmful thoughts. As 
Dr. J. Madison Taylor has pointed out: 

It is to the last degree unfortunate for the patient if suitable conditions are 
not provided with outlets for energies until evil mental habits have continued 
beyond the stagnation point where they may be radically corrected. 

All persons are subject to variations in self-control, to ups and downs of 
energy, impulse, emotion, action, judgment. 

Some minds are inherently well poised, but most have suffered greater or 
less derangement in normal responsiveness to external and internal impres¬ 
sions. There is then disharmony between receptibility, interpretation, impulse, 
and determination. 

Such a disharmony leads to many complications but may be cor¬ 
rected if “volition can be made to precede action” and “decision 
and action made clear and enforced.” Properly directed occupation 
can do much toward developing volition and its proper execution. 
It may, for instance, stimulate an idea. 

In some persons ideas spring to life in profusion, in perfection, and in¬ 
stantaneously; others require much time, and then ideation is often unclear. 
Training can do much to enhance or retard . 3 

The idea or sensation has a natural desire to express itself in 
action. 

If there be no image there will be no‘concept, and no concept can be formed 
without an accompanying motor outflow . 2 

It is the task of the occupational therapeutists to direct this 
motor outflow so that indecision, doubt, and fear do not prevent the 
logical execution of the idea. Execution may be guided during the 
performance of the occupation. As the patient progresses he should 
Jje given occupations demanding more intricate and difficult mental 
processes and requiring more rythmic, accurate, and deliberate 
physical movements. 


1 Occupational Therapy, by William Rush Dunton, jr., instructor in psychiatry, Johns 
Hopkins University. 

2 Dr. J. Madison Taylor. Psychic Hypertension : Restoration of Mind Control by 

Motor Training in Relaxation. International Clinics, Vol. II, series 22, 1912. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 37 

Muscu'nr energy is so closely associated with the integrity of neurons that 
all influences affecting them become of extreme significance whether bearing 
upon mental or physical competency. Right habit formation is bSsedonright 
guiding in motor impulses, and is essential to right thinking * * * ivr 

haps in time mankind will learn that exercise is a normal and needed use of 
motor machinery, developmental, educational, or reparative . 1 

Muscular training and the development of the entire motor forces 
m action may be carried on by properly prescribed and conducted 
occupations for work is the product of action, good work, of 
normality m the sum of actions.” 1 

7 he mental poise, control, optimism, and activity thus newly ac¬ 
quit ec_ reacts favorably upon the entire body and facilitates recovery 
bv assisting in such of the functions of life as nourishment, the pro¬ 
duction ot digestive juices, and the cycle of metabolism. Prof. 
Amai has noted in this connection that soldiers who have per¬ 
formed some praiseworthy act and are consequently happy recover 
rapidly from their wounds. 

Amroise Pare, the great French surgeon of the sixteenth century, 
went so far as to say “the happy always recover.” However exag¬ 
gerated this statement may be, the fact is significant that contentment 
reacts favorably upon the entire physical system and that sadness or 
worry produces a condition characterized by muscular-nervous de¬ 
pression, inhibition, retarded respiration, and enfeebled heart and 
circulation. 


PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS. 

Physical recovery is measured by the growing muscular power of 
the patient, his coordination, and his resistance to fatigue. Neither 
of these can be acquired suddenly; they must be developed by gradu¬ 
ated activity. 

Muscular exercise affords varied and valuable fields of usefulness. 
It relieves the heart by emptying the veins; it replaces fat bv muscle, 
and thereby prevents the stagnation of blood and lymph in tissue 
which does not spontaneously expel it; it increases oxygenation of 
celis and tissues; and it enhances digestion and metabolism. 

Activity is essential to health; it is necessary in rebuilding tissues 
and in the process of recovery. Dr. Taylor, in his Remarks on the 
Treatment of Chronic Disease, goes so far as to say: 

Much can be achieved by bringing into line the functional power of the organs 
and tissues so as to secure the completest transformation of dynamic into 
kinetic energy no matter what the morbid agency. 

Health and recovery depend to a large extent upon thoroughness 
of oxygenation. Faulty oxygenation results in accumulation of acids 
and toxins. While respiration is the basis of oxygenation, the mus¬ 
cular system is a powerful aid. Muscular activity produces deep 
breathing, and the oxygen acquired through the lungs and consumed 
by the muscles in contraction provides natural oxygenation and de¬ 
stroys acid products. 

1 Dr. J. Madison Taylor. Psychic Hypertension: Restoration of Mind Control by 
Motor Training in Relaxation. International Clinics, Vol. II. series 22, 1012. 

- Direeteur tin Laboratoire de liecherelies sur le Travail Professionnel au Conservatoire 
National des Arts et Metiers. 




38 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

The most powerful drugs can do little for ultimate restoration of capacity if 
the great oxygenating laboratories, the muscles, cease to play their essential 
cooperative part . 1 

All muscular activity is registered in respiratory functions. The 
deeper breath, the fuller heart beat, the quickened circulation are true 
tonics. The problems of oxygenation and oxidation can be made sim¬ 
ple, and can be applied in the routine of daily work. For these rea¬ 
sons it is the task of the occupational therapeutist to direct the ac¬ 
tivity of the patient so that he shall benefit by the exercise of his oc¬ 
cupation, adapting the exertions required in that occupation to the 
patient’s changing physical condition. 

When the gain in strength warrants further movements of the arm, trunk, 
neck, and legs, they can be employed with advantage, measured by time and 
forcefulness, rather than by the number and variety of movements . 1 

The proper activity of the invalid is most important, for the reason 
that his endurance is limited, easily fatigued, and his motor ma¬ 
chinery tends “to lose range, scope, elasticity, and nicety of ad¬ 
justment.” 

After acute illness there follows slower oxidation * * * and also, partly 

as a consequence of this, a habit of mind discouraging energizing, or there 
may follow injudicious impulses to action, the product of commendable zeal, 
yet imperiling tissues far from stable and which require wise training . 1 

The relation of activity to fatigue is fundamental; the weaker the 
patient the less his resistance to fatigue. Great care must be exer¬ 
cised that no strain falls on any part, for the body is no stronger 
than its weakest organ, and too great or prolonged muscular activity 
produces sarcolacite and carbonic acids in excess of oxidation, which 
may result in hyperacidity and subcatabolism. 

The value of proper activity is so great and the danger of over¬ 
doing or doing the wrong kind of thing is so serious that no patient 
should undertake any kind of exercise or occupation without the 
order of the physician. The exercise should then be directed and 
watched by one skilled in this particular practice and trained to 
note signs of fatigue. It is the duty of the occupational thera¬ 
peutist to restrain feverish and excitable attempts on the part of 
the patient or to strengthen languid motion, and, above all, to carry 
out the doctor’s orders intelligently. 

For instance, the doctor may prescribe certain movements of the 
arms. These movements may be accomplished by dumb-bell exercises, 
but they can be made far more effective and of greater interest to 
the patient if a hammer, plane, or saw is used instead. The weight 
of the tool, the nature of the material—iron, copper, etc., annealed 
or tempered; wood, hard or soft—all call for different kinds of 
exercises and varying degrees of energy. Different muscles are 
used in planing the top of a surface from those used in planing an 
under surface or taking off an edge. The patient may hold his 
body rigid, using only the muscles of his arm in hammering and 
expending as much energy on the down stroke of the hammer as in 
lifting it on the up stroke. In such a case relaxation, bodily rhythm, 
and coordination are impossible, and the arm must experience unnec¬ 
essary strain and fatigue. On the other hand, the patient may stand 

1 Dr. J. Madison Taylor. Motor Education in Convalescence and Invalided States 
Medicine, September, 1905. 




TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


39 


with his weight on his left leg, provided this is in accordance with 
his physical condition, and feel the impetus from the ankle or toe 
of his right foot extend through and coordinate all the muscles of 
his body, which terminates in an even and rhythmic lifting of his 
right arm. The hammer, with nicely balanced head and handle, 
allowing vibration, describes an arc and falls of its own weight 
with a blow far more forceful than can be effected by using strength 
on the downward stroke, and thus the patient's strength is conserved 
by half. 

The law of repose, as stated by Jules Amar, reads: 

The muscle returns to a state of repose in proportion to the speed with which 
it was exercised . 1 

The expenditure of energy is in proportion to the activity of 
the muscles, in relation to their coordination and contractions and 
the intensity, duration, and speed of their movement. All these fac¬ 
tors determine the degree of fatigue, and must be considered in any 
attempt at muscular restoration. 

The following !aw r s of Chauveau may be noted in this connection : 1 

The expenditure of energy is proportional to the effort of the contraction of 
the muscles, to the duration of the effort, and to the degree of muscular 
recovery. 

There exists the correct effort and speed to produce the maximum work with 
the minimum fatigue. 

Occupational therapy may accomplish a general toning of the 
heart, lungs, vasomotor system; increase resistance to fatigue; develop 
physical efficiency by intelligently conserving wasteful energy; exer¬ 
cise particular parts to regain their functions; train sense organs 
which have become blunted by disorders of a nerve or traumatic 
origin; and improve the entire psychic condition of the patient. 

INTERNAL DISEASES, INJURIES, AND POSTSVRGICAL TREATMENT (NOT ORTHOPEDIC). 

The method of building up the physique and of increasing re¬ 
sistance to fatigue necessarily differs for different types of dis¬ 
ability. After eliminating disorders of the central nervous system, 
disabilities, from the point of view of their occupational treatment, 
fall into two main classes—first, internal diseases and injuries; and, 
second, cases requiring orthopedic treatment or surgery. 

The most frequent disabilities included under internal diseases 
and injuries are tuberculosis, heart trouble, arteriosclerosis, rheuma¬ 
tism, kidney trouble, and general debility and surgical cases not 
orthopedic. The occupational treatment of each of these disabilities 
has many points in common, such as the gradual increase of nervous 
and cardiac tonicity by regulated muscular activity, improved mental 
condition, and avoidance of strain and fatigue. The doctor must, 
of course, prescribe the kind and extent of the exercise in each case. 
There are, however, a few important points to be considered in the 
occupational treatment of certain disabilities. 

For instance, the emphasis must be on “graduated labor” in 
tuberculosis. This is advocated by Dr. M. Patterson, of Friinly, 
England. Progress in the cure of tuberculosis must begin with com¬ 
plete rest, necessary to check the disease, though ultimately weaken¬ 
ing the muscles and bodily functions. When the patient is up and 

to - 

1 Translated from Organisation rhysiologique du Travail, by Jules Amar. 




40 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

begins his exercise it must be by prescription 1 of the doctor and 
increased from as short a period as 15 minutes once a day to 30, 45 
minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, etc., till the patient is able to work 8 hours 
a day at an occupation demanding a fair degree of muscular exertion. 
The occupation of the patient should be selected in no liaphazzard 
way, but should be considered in the light of his future employment. 
The speed with which he may increase the periods of his exercise 
depends upon his temperature, pulse, sputa examination, and the ob¬ 
servations of the physician. A work chart further assists the physi¬ 
cian in showing the patient’s methods of work, reactions, and fatigue. 

“ Cured, but unfitted for labor,” is the chronic complaint of 
tuberculosis patients. This does not apply to those patients who 
have received occupational treatment during convalescence. With¬ 
out such treatment patients not infrequently suffer a serious recur¬ 
rence of the disease upon attempting a normal day’s work with 
muscles weakened by long disuse in the sanitarium. The occupa¬ 
tions for the tubercular should necessarily be light, requiring deep 
breathing, outdoors if possible, or, if indoors, in a well-ventilated 
room of even temperature and free from fumes, dust, and dampness. 

The Association for the Prevention and Belief of Heart Disease 2 
states that more people die from heart disease in New York City 
than from tuberculosis, and that the death rate from heart trouble 
is steadily increasing. Vital statistics of the Census Bureau show 
that heart disease is one of the three diseases causing nearly one- 
third of the deaths in the registration area of the United States. 

Methods of treatment for heart disease are undergoing changes, 
but a proved method of treatment includes exercise, prescribed 
either by a heart specialist or by one who has had wide experience 
with the dangers, difficulties, and complications of heart disease. 
The emphasis in the occupational treatment of heart trouble, like 
that in tuberculosis, lies in the graduation of the exercise. There is 
no disability in which prevention and early treatment may play a 
more decisive part than in heart trouble. Adequate convalescence, 
graduated exercise, and proper occupation, with avoidance of sudden 
muscular exertion, may prevent heart trouble of a serious and hope¬ 
less type. 3 


1 At Muirdale Tuberculosis Sanitarium, Milwaukee County, Wis., an exercise permit 
card signed by the physician is given the patient when lie is able to go to the work¬ 
shop. It has been found to be a matter of psychology to head the card “ exercise permit.” 
The patients enter more enthusiastically into that which is permitted rather than 
required. On a bulletin board in the shop is posted each week; the names of those 
patients who are permitted increased working hours. The patients take great pride in 
the bulletin board and post items of interest, such as work of patients in other places, 
suggestions of articles to be made, elc. The bulletin board has not only improved the 
morale in the workshop, but has created an interest and spirit throughout the entire 
sanitarium. 

2 The Winifred Masterson Burke Relief Foundation has made valuable contributions 
to the study of convalescence, not the least of which has been the convalescence and 
treatment of cardiacs. At the convalescent home maintained by the foundation, of 
which Dr. Frederic Brush is superintendent, S00 patients suffering from organic heart 
disease have been treated. Many of them have returned to productiveness after a record 
of months in the hospitals. 

3 The 1914 report of the Social Service Bureau of Bellevue and Allied Hospitals shows 

that, without adequate convalescence, occupation, and suitable work, “ the progress of 
the ‘ cardiac ’ is a downward one if he is of the laboring class. Ilis latter history is 
usually that of a ‘ hospital repeater ’ and dependent. * * * W T e accept his decline 

to misery and dependency as inevitable, not realizing that, even from the economic point 
of view, this is a wasteful attitude.” Medical and social care of cardiacs has decreased 
the time spent in hospitals. They have lessened the patient’s suffering, lessened expense, 
and improved industrial efficiency. A record of 6 cases showed that 251 days, or an 
average of 42 days per case a year, were spent in the hospital. Not a single dav was 
spent in the hospital by the same 6 cases after entering the class for cardiacs. A saving 
of $439.25 was thus effected. Moreover, the earning capacity of 35 patients was in¬ 
creased from $12,477 before attending the class to $20,347.50 after attending, an in¬ 
crease of 71 per cent. 





V 






TRAINING OF TEACITERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL TTTERAPY. 41 


Iii ailliritis (lie situation is somewhat the same as in heart disease. 

Much of this class will naturally be cared for along with heart disease, and 
heart disease is going to be covered in more comprehensive ways in the’near 
future. 


Aithi it is, paralysis, and deformities following* nerve injuries, 
and selected cases of tabes dorsalis are benefited if muscles and joints 
are not allowed to stiffen and become inactive. Patients suffering 
from kidney trouble are liable to extreme fatigue and lassitude, 
ilieir occupation must be light, and they must not be exposed to 
cold or uneven temperature. 

In all cases of general debility, protracted surgical dressing cases, 
and serious internal diseases, convalescence is an important feature 
of recovery. As Dr. Brush has said of convalescent institutions, they 
adopt the most effective restorative agency known 4i to the hair- 
sick, the handicapped and subnormal, the failing, the depressed. 

Sleep, exercise, rest, feeding, amusements, diversional and 
hardening occupations, companionships, care of minor ills, mental 
and moral slants, home betterments at the same time, and future em¬ 
ployment are all studied and adjusted to the individual * * * 

and the results are inevitable and inspiringly good.” 

Dr. Brush describes his occupational treatment at the Burke Foun¬ 
dations, White Plains, X. Y. He says: 


One soon learns that convalescence at best is fully half mental. Our occupa¬ 
tion is considered not chietly diversional but remedial, reconstructive, curative, 
convalescent, normalizing. It is not a side issue; it costs; it is our best medi¬ 
cine. It is prescribed, in writing, for more than one-fourth cardiacs, hyper- 
tliyroids, clioreics, all the border mental and nerve folks, tbe inherently restless, 
ail long stayers, the temperamentally difficult, the quitters, the pampered, the 
disheartened. 


Of the result of the work cure he has said: 


We have records of these people back at normal living. We are'knowing 
that they were not lazy—only mislead, mismanaged, misenvironed. Now come 
the newer long-term and more testing phases, giving (ever with a small per¬ 
centage of failures) end-products, which may be indicated as follows; Cardiacs 
who have been much in hospitals and dependence strengthened to maintain 
steady occupation; * * * nearly nervous and mental borderliners of many 

kinds, turned back by occupational and mental therapy principally to fair liva¬ 
bility and content, * * * rheumatics in limited selection, given long terms, 

particularly for their hearts’ sake, and at last sufficiently toughened for com¬ 
petition by graduated play and work, * * * various subnormal youths set 

forward with weight, blood, nerve, posture and character, and educational addi¬ 
tions that are fairly permanent; protracted surgical dressing cases in large 
numbers carried to earlier and solider healing plus hardening for work, hyper¬ 
thyroidism afforded long rest plus nerve and heart training with notably worthy 
results * * * these are some of the better and harder things now being 

done in convalescent institutions. 


ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY. 

The following classification of orthopedic cases corresponds to that which has 
been decided upon by the British Government and is the outlined clnssifiention 
of the Surgeon General of the United States Army: 

( a ) Derangements and disabilities of joints, simple and grave, including 
anchylosis. 

(b) Deformities and disabilities of feet, such ns hallux valgus, hallux rigidus, 
hammer toes, metatarsalgia, painful heels, flat and claw feet. 


1 Dr. Frederie Brush. The Convalescent Field—Its New and Changing Border Lines. 
Modern Hospital, June, 1916. 





42 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


(c) Malunited and ununited fractures. 

( d ) Injuries to ligaments, muscles, and tendons. 

(e) Cases requiring tendon transplantation or other treatment for irreparable 
destruction of the nerves. 

( f ) Nerve injuries complicated by fractures or stiffness of joint. 

(g) Cases requiring surgical appliances. 

(h) Cases requiring treatment of stump and fitting of artificial limbs. 

Occupational therapy has a distinct and definite purpose in the 
functional adaptation and reeducation of many of these orthopedic 
cases. 

The term “orthopedic surgery” is used in the comprehensive sense 
in which it is employed by Col. Sir .Robert Jones, C. B.: 

The modern conception of orthopedic surgery * * * may be broadly de¬ 

fined to be the treatment by manipulation, by operation, and by reeducation 
of disabilities of the locomotor system whether arising from disease or injury. 

For lesions in and about the joints, the workshops are a valuable 
part of the hospital equipment. 

In all cases, whether operation is necessary or not, the treatment is a lengthy 
one, since exercises are necessary for many months before the joints can be 
made to function properly. In such instances, workshops are a valuable ad¬ 
junct to the hospital equipment since they furnish not merely vocational train¬ 
ing, but the most effective means of exercising the injured joint . 1 

Static deformities cover a long period of treatment in which the 
patient is far from helpless and in which a better physical condi¬ 
tion is maintained if he has proper exercises. 

Bone injuries necessarily require a long' period of convalescence. 
The modern treatment of many bone injuries, as differentiated from 
the oid method, is that the parts when properly supported are not 
harmed by use, and that the danger of stiffening and functional im¬ 
pairment is lessened by the activity prescribed in the hospital work¬ 
shop. 

In the postoperative treatment of tendon injuries, it is necessary 
to have exact scientific knowledge as to when the tendon has healed 
so that it may be safely exercised. When the physician determines 
that point, exercise must begin and regulated active movements in 
the hospital workshop are then invaluable. 

Nerve injuries require a long period of treatment in which the 
muscles must be kept in the best possible condition. The use of ap¬ 
paratus and extreme watchfulness in occupation often prevent the 
muscle structures from becoming either stretched or contracted. 

The cases of amputations require a period sometimes as long as 
several months before the prosthetic appliance may be finally ad¬ 
justed and fitted to the stump. During this period occupational 
therapy, with its properly directed exercises, must develop whatever 
latent power there is in the stump. 

Characteristic of all these groups of patients is their chronic nature * * * 

in almost every instance, a lengthy postoperative treatment. The crippling 
nature of the injury, its long duration, the apparent inability to earn a liveli¬ 
hood, have all depressed the patient to a marked degree . 1 

OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY AND THE WAR INVALID. 

The disability of the war invalids cover a wide range, including 
all those diseases, chronic and accute infections, mental and nervous 


1 Dr. Leo Mayer. American Journal of Care for Cripples, Vol. V, No. 1. 




TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 43 


disorders, accidents, and injuries which are frequent in large gen¬ 
eral hospitals. In addition to these there are the particular disa¬ 
bilities of the war, shrapnel wounds, shell shock, gas poisoning, the 
effect of explosives, and the extreme prostration of trench strain. 
A close analysis of the three largest groups of disabilities—first, the 
war psychoses and neuroses; second, internal diseases and injuries; 
and, third, cases requiring orthopedic surgery—will make clear the 
reason why occupational therapy has been found to be more invalu¬ 
able in the treatment of war invalids than in civilian patients. 

Ten per cent of 4,000 cases surveyed in Canada were found to be 
nervous and mental cases. An analysis of these showed that 60 per 
cent were nervous, 25 per cent mental, and 15 per cent epileptics. 1 
Fifteen per cent of the discharged men from the British Army are 
unrecovered cases of mental diseases and war neuroses. 2 Dr. Thomas 
W. Salmon, medical director of the National Committee for Mental 
Hygiene, states that on the basis of 1,000,000 men overseas the 
country may expect 250 insane soldiers per month. 2 

The popular idea that every disabled man is a cripple is disproved 
by the figures of the interallied conference held in Paris May 8-12, 
1*917. These figures show only 167 cases of amputation in every 
1,000 disabilities. Consequently 833 cases in every 1,000 are- injuries 
of other kinds. The men are classified according to their most se¬ 
rious disability, but in 14 per cent or 15 per cent of all cases there are 
two or three or even four injuries. Blindness is given as low as less 
than 1 per cent of the disabilities, 3 and French figures give the per¬ 
centage of blindness to be 0.05 per cent of all the soldiers engaged in 
battle. 4 * 

MENTAL AND NERVOUS DISORDERS. 


The number of mental and nervous cases is misleading, inasmuch 
as only the acute forms are diagnosed as war psychoses and neuroses. 
Except in degree, they are not unlike many mild forms which exist 
in connection with many other disabilities. 

The increased number of commitments to insane hospitals since 
the war is evidence of the unbalancing effect of war upon the civil 
population. It may be guessed to what greater extent the actual 
participants in the war are subjected to similar disorders. 

The surgeon, Desault, noted that during the French Revolution 
diseases of the heart and enlargement of Hie aoria were increased. 
Prof. Amar says in this connection that the number of old people 
who died during the course of the present war has been greatly 
increased. 6 


In speaking of the psychic condition resulting from the present 
war, Prof. Amar further states: 

It has disturbed the higher nervous centers and has often prevented Ihe 
proper functioning of the brain. It lias inclined thousands of wounded to 

i Military Hospitals Commission. .. . T . mi- 

* I’svrhiatric bulletin of the New York Hospitals, July, 1917. 

* Conference Interaliee, Rapports. T rpu,, 

4 How France Returns Soldiers to Civilian Life, by J. L. Todd. 

c The violence of ihe emotion. Prof. Amar explains, excites the bulb of the aorta and 
results in palpitation or syncope. The pneumogastric or vagus nerve starts in the 
medulla oblongata and its branches extend to the head, neck, thorax, aud abdomen Its 
IS impedes and'tends to inhibit the heart, and this affects nil parts ot the body by 
a cliince inthe amount of the blood which circulates through them The brain is 

therefore affected «nd the cardiac phenomena are complicated by cerebral anemia aud 
physical depression. 




44 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR. OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


mental disorders, phobias, hallucinations, and different and rather obscure 
psychoses. Organic troubles and decay of nerve centers have become more 
frequent as a result of this terrible war than ever in the knowledge of man. 1 

It lias long been recognized that a serious consequence of any 
long convalescence may be the mental depression and lassitude which 
renders the victim unable to adjust himself to normal life. This 
state of mind is further intensified when it exists in connection with 
a real physical handicap and when, in addition, the patient has 
been subjected to great nervous tension. The strain of trench war¬ 
fare, the idle hours of waiting, the submission to discipline, and 
lack of individual initiative render the war invalid particularly 
susceptible to this mental condition. 

Dr. Bourillion, head of St. Maurice, one of the most important 
French hospitals, has said: 

Our young wounded soldiers, weakened by violent and prolonged sufferings, 
dangerous operations, and nervous shock have had their equilibrium rudely 
shaken and disturbed. Such shocks to their physical organization are bound 
to react on their mental and moral condition. * * * Add to this their 

isolation, their natural preoccupation in their own fate and that of. those dear 
to them, and it will explain the kind of inertia, the decay of will power, and 
the apparent indifference to the future which gives the impression that the 
majority of them are incapable of ever again realizing the joy of work. 

Fo medical treatment alone can solve the mental phase of the 
problem. It is peculiarly the field of occupational therapy. 

Dr. F. IT. Sexton, 2 of Halifax, tells of the incompleteness of 
medical treatment alone. In speaking of the soldiers in convalescent 
homes in Canada he has said: 

We found that these men instead of becoming better under the medical 
treatment, were absolutely deteriorating mentally and otherwise and were in 
danger of becoming so hospitalized that they would never go back to their 
civilian work with any vim. 

Therefore, we decided that they must have some kind of occupation and 
that they must have some kind of work. I do not suppose that there is any¬ 
body that does not know that work is the greatest curative in the world. So 
we began right away as seen as the military hospitals commission had an 
accurate idea of the situation and supplied some kind of occupation for every 
one of the returned soldiers. This was extended until it included even active 
cases in the hospital. The man who was flat on his back and could raise his 
hand was given something to do, if lie desired to do something to while away 
the time and the medical officer had said he could take up some light work. 
* * It was found to be so good for the men that after an experience of 

six months it was made compulsory, and to-day unless a man is excused by 
his medical officer he has to enter the vocational classes as part of his daily 
routine. 

The curative workshops in the reconstruction hospitals help the 
majority of the mild mental and nervous cases to recovery, but those 
severe affections definitely classed as war psychoses and neuroses 
must undergo a long period of convalescence in which occupational 
therapy is an important feature of the treatment. 

It is highly desirable that these men, to whom one is all the more indebted 
because they have suffered greatly and must suffer mentally and physically in 
the future, should imagine for one moment that they are herded into an asylum 
as incurable because they would be burdensome elsewhere. * * * The whole 

future of these patients depends on the care they receive. Given constant care 
and a well-thought-out system of functional reeducation, astonishing improve¬ 
ment may be anticipated in some cases. 3 


1 Translated from Organisation Physiol ogique du Travail, by Jules Araar. 

- Address given in Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 15, 1917. 

s Resolution passed May 11, 1917, interallied conference, Paris. 




TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 45 


Dr. Salmon lias said: 

Few more hopeful cases exist in the medical services of the countries at war 
than those suffering from the war neuroses grouped under th Q term “shell 
shock when treated in special hospitals by physicians and nurses familiar with 
the nature of functional nervous diseases and with their management. On the 
otiK*i hand, the general military hospitals and convalescent camps presented, 
no more pathetic picture than the mismanaged nervous and mental cases which 
crowded their wards before such special hospitals were established. Exposed to 
misdirected harshness or to equally misdirected sympathy, dealt with at one 
time as malingerers and at another as sufferers from incurable organic nervous 
disease, passed on from one hospital to another, and finally discharged with 
pensions which can not subsequently be diminished, their treatment has been a 
sad chapter iu military medicine . 1 As one writer has said, “ They enter the 
hospitals as ‘shell-shock’ cases and come out as nervous wrecks.” To their 
initial neurological disability (of a distinctively recoverable nature) are added 
such secondary effects as unfavorable habit reactions, sterotypy and fixation 
of sympioms, the self-pity of the confirmed hysteric, the morbid timidity and 
anxiety of the neurasthenic, and the despair of the hypochondriac. In such 
hospitals and convalescent homes inactivity and aimless lounging weaken the 
will, and the attitude of permanent invalidism quickly replaces that <»f recov¬ 
ery* * * * When the patients and staff have been suitably housed, atten¬ 
tion should be directed to the highly important features of shops, industrial 
equipment, gymnasium, and gardens. * * * 

Second in importance only to the’general psychological control of the situa¬ 
tion in functional nervous diseases is the restoration of the lost or impaired 
functions by reeducation. None of the methods available for reeducation are 
so valuable in the war neuroses as those in which a useful occupation is em¬ 
ployed as the means for training. Reeducation should commence as soon as 
the patient is received. Thought, will, feeling, and function have all to be 
restored, and work toward all these ends should be undertaken simultaneously. 

There is' no class of patients for whom occupational therapy is 
more necessary and for whom the most skilled instructors should be 
chosen than this one. 


Work 2 * should be given only as a medical prescription; it should be prescribed 
only after careful mental and physical examination and with as much thought 
on the part of the physician as he would use in determining whether a given 
patient needs a vogotonic* or a sympathicotonic drug. 

“ It seems that tools and machines were first introduced merely with the idea 
of giving (he patients something to do. The hours and conditions of use were 
prescribed by the medical superintendent according to the condition of the 
patient. ‘ You can not conceive (he difference in the condition of the men,’ said 
one of the medical superintendents in the course of his evidence. ‘ It is simply 
marvelous how much happier and more contented they become with something 
to do. They eat better, put on weight, and submit to regulations more willingly, 
thus hastening their ultimate discharge. I have not had one-tenth the trouble 
with discipline since vocational training was installed .’” 8 


INTERNAL. DISEASES, INJURIES, AND POST-SURGICAL TREATMENT (NOT ORTHOPEDIC). 

The most frequent disabilities of returned men in the Montreal 
office are rheumatism, heart trouble, and tuberculosis. Occupational 
therapy has been found to have a definite physiological function in 
the convalescence of a large group of internal diseases and injuries. 
Prof. Amar lias stated that deficiency of cardiac activity is particu¬ 
larly to be watched for among the older wounded soldiers. 


1 When the sufferers from war neuroses have been allowed to return to their home 
communities, a serious social and economic problem has arisen, “ so serious that a 
special sanitarium—the Home of Recovery—the first of several to be provided, has been 
established in London and subsidized by the war office for the treatment of such cases 
among pensioners.” 

2 Dr. A. J. Ruggles, in Modern Hospital, Juno, 1917. 

8 Recalled to Life, No. 2. 




46 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


It is necessary to know how to discover the cardiovascular and pulmonary 
affections in order to establish with surety the physical fitness aud the degree 
of endurance of the wounded. 1 

The disabled soldiers are particularly liable to fatigue, and by 
graduated exercises their resistance may be increased and the degree 
of exercise that will not affect their organic difficulty be determined. 

Occupational therapy is especially valuable to cheer the convalesc¬ 
ing soldier and balance his nervous system, since his physical condi¬ 
tion is not infrequently aggravated as the result of nerve strain . 2 
After a prostrating experience he is subjected to the enervation of 
institutional life, and unless he is a very unusual patient he antici¬ 
pates a “soft job,” if indeed any job at all, little realizing that there 
are applicants far in excess of such positions, while industry is 
severely handicapped by a lack of skilled labor. Occupational 
therapy must help these patients to recover in every way by creating 
in them the desire to make the best of their conditions and by teach¬ 
ing them new trades or greater expertness in old ones so that their 
remaining years may be productive. These physiological effects 
of vocational exercises are now used with profit in the Austro-Ger- 
man hospitals under the name “Arbeits-therapy.” 

ORTHOPEDIC SURGERY. 

There is no branch of medicine which has made more rapid strides 
of progress in the last four years than the science of orthopedic 
surgery. A new value and emphasis have been placed upon regulated 
exercise and occupational therapy. Occupation accomplishes more 
for this group than the somewhat negative function of passing time. 
It provides regulated activity and exercise of prescribed muscles 
which is necessary in functional readaptation or the reeducation of 
any injured part. 

Experience in foreign hospitals has proved that functional readap¬ 
tation is greatly facilitated in the hospital workshop. For instance, 
in cases of amputation— 

Reeducation of the stumps produces an improvement through a physiologi¬ 
cal state, readapts the patients, and combats the menace of nervous degenera¬ 
tion. It then permits the prosthetic apparatus to operate perfectly and with a 
better use of touch and muscle. 1 

The latent power in the stump is developed and trophic complica¬ 
tions avoided hj exercise. The extent of the injury and the result 
to be achieved call for different occupations and exercises. Walk¬ 
ing, for instance, or the effort required in moving the shoulders or 
elbows requires force, a combination of muscular effort, and a series 
of small movements, whereas writing merely exercises the fingers. 

An important war contribution made to orthopedics is properly 
directed exercise of a practical type in the hospital workshops. 

Nothing has been more remarkable than the overthrow of the old-fashioned, 
purposeless orthopedic exercises for the cure of muscle weakness, stiff joints, 

1 Translated from Organisation Physiologique du Travail, by Jules Amar. 

2 The attitude of the man is suggested in the following extract from Good News for 
the Disabled Soldier and Sailor, a pamphlet, for the information of discharged men and 
printed in the first number of Recalled to Life: 

“ How different things are now that you are back in ‘ Blighty/ In the stress of life 
during your military training, and on active service, time passed too quickly, and you 
could not think of anything but just ‘carrying-on.’ But now, lying in bed'or in con¬ 
valescence, time bangs heavily on your hands and you begin to think, think, think. And 
doubtless as you feel yourself a shattered man, either haudicapped by the loss of a limb 
or otherwise disabled, you carry your thoughts back over the past two years.” 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUFATIONAL THERAPY. 47 


etc. Fnder the influence of the teaching of Col. Sir Robert Jones, C. B., useful 
manual work has largely supplanted the older system of mechanotherapy. The 
bench, the workshop, and the gymnasium provide for the active movements of 
joints and of limbs, in contradistinction to the, for the most part, passive 
movements of the appliances hitherto in use, while at the same time the patient, 
being provided with a useful occupation, lends himself more readily to the treat¬ 
ment prescribed for him and becomes interested in it. The chief point to re¬ 
member is that each piece of work performed is a prescription ordered by the 
surgeon for a specific joint or muscle disability. 

For instance, a man suffering from dropped foot instead of having to pedal a 
dummy bicycle now works a fret saw, foot lathes, or, in the case of certain 
injuries to the arm and hand, the man is put to work with saw, plane, or other 
tools and thus accomplishes himself, by means of natural movements, results 
which previously have only been obtained by means of massage, physical exer¬ 
cise, etc. Methods such as these are very successful, as it will be agreed that 
it is much.easier to get a man better by a natural process than by an artificial 
one.’ 

Col Jones himself says, as a result of his experience in English 
hospitals: 

As soon as the patient is fit to get about lie should have some occupation 
both for bis mental, moral, and physical welfare. Here the curative workshop 
is an invaluable aid to bis gymnastic treatment. * * * 

Excellent and useful as systematic gymnastic training is for developing 
movement, the training in coordination in doing purposeful work is what 
really brings brain and muscle once more into proper accord, while regular 
daily work reestablishes in the patient habits of responsibility and self- 
respect. * * * For example, a man with stiff fingers barely able to grasp 

even fairly large objects, is soon utterly wearied if set to grasp spring dumb¬ 
bells or any other such apparatus, but will cheerfully spend the morning grasp¬ 
ing a big duster and clearing windows. * * * Later, if lie is a carpenter 

or other skilled tradesman, he is promoted to the use of tools he understands, 
and so the disabled hand is reeducated partly by set gymnastic exercises and 
largely by work. 

Driving a plane in the carpenter’s work can be employed for exercising mus¬ 
cles and joints in both arms and legs. * * * His brain is interested in what 

his hands are doing and not wearied by the curative action which the treadle 
movement brings about. 

The experience of France, Belgium, Germany, Austria, Canada, 
and England has proved the greater value of active movement ini¬ 
tiated by tlie patient himself over any system of Zander movements 
or mechanotherapeutics, however elaborate. 

Of the orthopedic treatment in Canada Mr. Kidner and Mr. Todd 
have said: 

Institutions carrying out functional reeducation employ treatment by active 
and passive mechanotherapy, by galvanic, static, farnflic and high-tension 
electric currents, by vibration, by bathing and blasts of hot air, by baths of 
many kinds, by colored lights, by massage, gymnastics, and exercises of various 
sorts. Although such a variety of methods exist, opinion is universal in insist¬ 
ing that work, properly selected and graduated, has the highest therapeutic 
and psychic value ami constitutes the best possible means of renecustoming 
muscles aud the mind to action. Whenever possible the work given—occu¬ 
pational therapy—constitutes an introduction to the vocational training, prop¬ 
erly speaking, which will be given later should it he necessary to do so. Passive 
mechanotherapy is little used. Experience has completely demonstrated the 
greater value of active movement initiated by the patient himself. 

A distinct accomplishment of occupational therapy and one which 
is not often realized is the conserving of the patient's energy. This 
is a matter of no small importance to the handicapped who labor 
under physical impairment and are subject to extreme fatigue. The 

1 A memorandum prepared by Sir Alfred Keogh, G. C. U.. dueetor general, army med¬ 
ical service for the Auglo-Bolgiuu committee. 






48 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


patient is taught to eliminate wasteful effort and is shown how to 
achieve the best results with the least expenditure of energy. 


THE NEED FOR IMMEDIATE OCCUPATION. 


The mental condition of the disabled soldier or sailor is such that 
if a delay occurs before he is given an occupation he frequently be¬ 
comes institutionalized and unable to adapt himself to the thought 
of productive work. Unless the large margin of waste time in the 
medical treatment is occupied in some way from the very first, the 
patients will become “ incurable loafers ” and degenerate after a long 
convalescence into that chronic invalidism which is mental rather 
than physical. 

The effect on the mental outlook of the wounded man is equally important. 
A soldier is either fit for duty or he is in a hospital. After lying in bed weeks 
or months while septic wounds have been slowly healing, he has often lost 
much of his spirit and initiative. If he is in a hospital where there is nothing 
definite for him to do, he is apt during his convalescence to learn the habit of 
getting through the day without doing anything more energetic than smoking, 
playing cards, and listening to a concert, or, if out, going to a cinematograph 
show. When, however, the patient is in an atmosphere of work he soon recovers 
some hold on himself and wishes to do something, especially when the satis¬ 
factory performance of his work earns some small extra privileges. As his 
power to work increases he ceases to think so much of himself as a maimed 
man, but begins to think of what he will be able to do in the future. 1 

It is of the utmost importance that occupation begin as soon as the 
patient is considered fit by the medical authorities. Experience has 
proved that the ease with which men become adjusted and employ¬ 
able is in direct ratio to the promptness with which reeducation was 
begun. Mr. L. G. Brock has said: 

The question is desperately urgent. Habits of idleness are not easily shaken 
off, and if once these men are allowed to sink into despondency and apathy they 
will soon degenerate into chronic unemployables. Delay means -wasted lives. 

French experience shows that only 5 per cent of those who com¬ 
mence training in hospitals failed to continue, whereas 80 per cent 
took no training at all if training was deferred. 2 

The danger of institutionalizing can only be forestalled by the 
prompt action of enlightening the minds and sustaining the weakened 
wills of the long convalescent patients. 

“ Every delay,” says Dr. Bourillion, “ in carrying out this sugges¬ 
tion increases the chances of seeing them overcome by the evils of 
indolence.” 

THE PRESENT FIELD OF OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY, AND ITS 
POSSIBILITIES OF DEVELOPMENT. 


Occupational therapy 3 is neither a new movement nor one which 
has suddenly come into prominence through a spectacular publicity 
campaign. It is, rather, a movement which has gradually developed 
by jlisting itself over a long period of years. It was initiated by 
the doctors in insane hospitals who first dared the experiment of 
putting their patients to work; and by those other doctors who were 
groping after something which might give to their neurasthenic 


l Sir Robert Jones, C. B., in Recalled to Life, No. 1. 

? 0, L Annee 1916, office National des MutilSs et reformes de la guerre. 

, * The limtory^of occupational therapy,” by William Rush Dunton, jr., Modern Hospital, 
June, 1917, and Occupational therapy, a manual for nurses,” by the same author. 





TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 49 


patients a healthy interest and a new grip on life. The healing value 
of occupation is so well established that occupational therapy is no 
longer confined to the insane or neurasthenic but has been found 
equally beneficent in tuberculosis, in long orthopedic treatments, and 
in extensive convalescences in a general hospital. 

The crafts, with their variety and scope, are well adapted to the 
needs of the occupational therapeutist. A craft is quickly learned, 
the equipment is simple and inexpensive, and varying degrees or 
mental or physical exertion are possible. Art and craft are closely 
interwoven, and art especially affords a channel for self-expression 
which is in many cases the keynote of the success of occupational 
therapy. There is in the crafts just that poise, opportunity for 
creation, and interest in execution which on a first glance seems to 
counteract strain^ overspecialization, and the monotony of the fac¬ 
tory system. It is not strange that those doctors who see the disas¬ 
trous by-products of modern industrialism should favor the crafts 
and simple hand industries as occupations well fitted for the hospital 
workshops. Occupational therapy has justified itself purely as a 
medical agent and has proved beyond a doubt the value of occupa¬ 
tion as a therapeutic measure. The crafts have met all the thera¬ 
peutic qualifications of occupations and the tendency has therefore 
teen to consider them the logical channels of expression and to re¬ 
quire a knowledge of art and craft in the training for teachers. 

Occupational therapy has up to the present made no pretense to 
provide vocational training. Yet the instruction received during 
convalescence has been of direct economic value to a few patients 
who, after a hospital experience, have been better equipped for earn¬ 
ing their living. The children’s teacher in connection with the City 
Hospital of Cincinnati gave instruction to several convelescing young 
men, with the result that they secured better positions after leaving 
the hospital than they had held before, and a few even passed civil- 
service examinations. The reason that these cases are as rare as they 
are may be partly due to the fact that the institutions which have 
adopted occupational therapy are not, as a rule, those to which the 
wording man goes, unless he be tubercular or a chronic invalid. 
With the possible exception of Massachusetts General Hospital, the 
City Hospital of Cincinnati, the Bloomingdale Hospital, the Phila¬ 
delphia General Hospital, the Cook County Hospital (Chicago), the 
Latter Day Saints’ Hospital (Salt Lake City),and a few others,they 
are either private sanitariums, dependent upon paying patients for 
support, or else county, municipal, or State institutions for chronic 
invalids or insane, dependent upon public support. 

The patients in the private sanitariums are largely drawn from 
the leisure or professional classes. Although a few of these patients 
may later earn their living as craftsmen or craft teachers, none of 
them will, in all probability, enter the trades. For these patients the 
crafts prove a resource and meet all the needs of the occupational 
therapeutist. On the other hand, the majority of the patients in 
public institutions are so chronically subnormal that there is little 
hope of their ever engaging in competitive industry. The crafts are 
palliative for these patients; they help to maintain discipline, and, 
in some instances, they enable the patients to earn something under 
direction. 

69359°—18 - 4 


50 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

Thus it is that the two types of institution which have largely 
adopted occupational therapy are not those in which the laboring 
classes convalesce. With the exception of a few striking cases of 
patients who have found their occupational training in the convalesc¬ 
ing shop to be of economic value, the majority of the patients of the 
laboring classes who have had occupational therapy during, con¬ 
valescence are rarely able to make any practical use of craft training, 
and consequently either return to their former trades or to new 
unskilled or semiskilled trades. If they do follow their craft train¬ 
ing, their future is somewhat precarious, for in such cases they are 
dependent in a large degree upon the fickleness of markets, upon fads, 
or upon the generosity of the public. 

The economic side of occupational therapy is only beginning to be 
appreciated. The report of the Henry B. Favill School of Occupations, 
the Illinois Society for Mental Hygiene, under the direction of Mrs. 
Eleanor Clarke Slagle, shows for the year 1916-17 that 25 out of 
71 patients were placed in wage-earning occupations who would, 
without such aid, have been public dependents, and that these pa¬ 
tients, together with those in attendance in the department and the 
sales from their work, have saved the State of Illinois for one year 
$21,430. One hundred patients, moreover, were refused for lack of 
teachers. When such results are possible, a community can no longer 
question whether it can afford such a department, but rather whether 
it can afford to be without it. 

The present limitations of occupational therapy are, first, overpro¬ 
duction of certain articles dependent upon an unstable and varying 
market, and, second, failing to offer training of economic value to 
the convalescent workingman. In order to study how occupational 
therapy may, while retaining all of its therapeutic value, at the same 
time reach and benefit all classes to the fullest extent, it will be neces¬ 
sary to analyze the purposes of occupational therapy. It is, of course, 
impossible to cover the specific occupations and technique of teaching 
for each handicap, as the range of disabilities is wide, varying from 
the most obvious deformity to the subtlest psychosis and neurosis. 
There are, however, a few general principles common in the teaching 
of all. Occupational therapy aims first to create a wholesome interest 
in something outside the patient’s morbid interest in himself and his 
symptoms; second, to fill the unoccupied portions of the patient’s 
day; third, to prepare his mental attitude so that he may adjust 
himself to normal demands and environment after hospital dis¬ 
charge; and, fourth, to facilitate medical treatment by regulated 
exercise. 

These results may be achieved by a large variety of occupations, 
and many practical vocations are quite as instrumental in accomplish¬ 
ing these as the crafts. For instance, soldering tin cans, joints, wire, 
tinsmithing, and electric wiring involve many of the processes used 
in metal craft, and the manufacture of leather goods, bags, belts, 
travelers’ cases, and fancy commercial articles may be quite as inter¬ 
esting as hand tooling or illuminating. Bookkeeping, salesmanship, 
general education, stenography, telegraphy with bedside ominigraph 
may serve all the purposes of raffia work, tying knots, or other invalid 
occupations. Furniture making holds many of the possibilities of 
manual training and wood carving, while the study of the gas engine, 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 51 

motor meehairies, and construction work has an endless number of 
possibilities. Commercial design, architectural drafting, sign paint¬ 
ing, lettering, and printing have many points in common with fine- 
arts drawing and painting or stenciling and block printing. If the 
hospital is in the country or where patients come from rural com¬ 
munities, lectures and demonstrations of soils, principles of farm 
management, and sanitation of the dairy may pass many a weary 
hour. Wherever possible practice in the hospital garden, poultry 
yard, or orchard should engage the prescribed exercise rather than 
games, walks, or nature study. Such activities will meet all the 
requirements, namely, divert the patients’ attention from himself, 
fill his unoccupied time, give him a wholesome mental attitude, and 
regulate his bodily activity. 

There are, however, real dangers and drawbacks in introducing 
such work into the hospital curriculum. First, the danger of the choice 
of the wrong occupation; second, the danger of the wrong presenta¬ 
tion of the right occupation; and, third, the harm of keeping the 
patient in touch with the same occupation, whose technicalities have 
possibly been the very grind and monotony which may have con¬ 
tributed to his breakdown. 

The choice of the wrong occupation may have disastrous conse¬ 
quences, as a sound phobia would be intensified by telegraphy, 
nervous exhaustion increased by the close application of shorthand 
or bookkeeping, rheumatism accentuated by many of the strained 
positions of gardening, and the cardiac patient positively in danger 
in a machine shop with belts and possible uneven muscular exertion. 

If the right occupation is selected, any therapeutic value it might 
have had may be nullified by failure to arouse the patient from his 
apathy or by overstimulation and exertion. It must be constantly 
borne in mind that the patient is temporarily or permanently sub¬ 
normal, that he is unfit to acquire training in regular channels, that 
he comes to the hospital primarily to recover, and that all other 
benefits must remain entirely secondary to this. 

These two dangers exist no more for practical occupations in the 
hospital workshop than they do for the so-called crafts. The success 
of occupational therapy does not lie in any particular craft or trade, 
but rather in the skill wdtli which it is selected for the particular dis¬ 
ability of the patient and the technique of allowing the patient’s 
reaction, temperament, and fatigue to form the basis teaching. 

The third danger applies strictly to practical rather than to semi¬ 
esthetic occupations. When the occupation can be so taught that it 
is not a repetition of the grind that the man has been subjected to 
but rather opens new possibilities to him and increases his earning 
power, it is not to be weighed in the balance with a mere resource, 
which in all probability the patient will never have time or means to 
enjoy. The further enriching of the patient’s background by better 
education, by practical resources, and by a knowledge of hygienic 
living, renders his convalescence of lasting value. 

The future development of occupational therapy is destined to in¬ 
clude all classes and types of long convalescent disabilities and not 
only to assist in curative treatment but to take cognizance of the 
industrial world and to prepare the handicapped, so far as is possible, 
to become independent economic units. 


PART III. 

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

The purpose of occupational therapy is far deeper than to fill 
waste time, develop mental habits, or functionally reeducate muscles 
and joints. The value of occupational therapy in these respects is 
no longer debatable. It was proved a sound medical policy before 
the war, and the subsequent experiences of the belligerent countries 
have confirmed its earlier claims. But the social and economic pos¬ 
sibilities of occupational therapy in the readjustment of the disabled 
to civilian life are of immediate importance. In addition, it is ex¬ 
pedient to know to what extent the three stages of rehabilitation, 
namely, invalid occupation, occupational therapy, and vocational 
education, may interrelate and contribute to the ultimate goal of 
industrial rehabilitation. 

ADVISABILITY OF PRACTICAL WORK. 

Occupational therapy in this country up to the present has made 
no invasion into the field of vocational education. There are a few 
striking exceptions of men who have been better equipped for work 
after a hospital experience, but these cases are unfortunately rare. 

The occupations selected for the workshops have been largely crafts. 
Difficulty has been experienced in marketing the patients’ handiwork 
and in providing them with a future occupation which may follow 
if unable to compete in the usual lines of industry. These economic 
limitations have reacted upon the patients in many instances to such 
an extent that the full value of occupational therapy has not been 
realized. As Dr. Frederic Brush has said: 1 

Success in mental convalescence is going to hinge on occupation, and occupa¬ 
tional therapy is measurably failing everywhere because of lack of sales outlets 
for its products. 

Dr. Thomas W. Salmon 2 has expressed the same thought: 

Nonproductive occupations are not only useless but deleterious. The principle 
of “ learning by doing ” should guide all reeduicative work. “ Continual resting,” 
long periods spent alone, general softening of the environment, and occupations 
undertaken simply because the mood of the patient suggests them are positively 
harmful, as shown by the poor results obtained in those general hospitals and 
convalescent homes in which such measures are employed. 

Experience in Europe has proved that if trivial and time-passing 
occupations are too long continued in the rehabilitation of disabled 
soldiers and sailors, men have been actually turned away from pro¬ 
ductive occupations and have taken up one of those “ semitrades ” 

1 The Convalescent Field—Its New and Changing Border Lines. 

2 Psychiatric Bulletin of the New York State Hospitals, July, 1917. 


52 




TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 53 


which are dependent upon charity or upon uncertain and fickle mar¬ 
kets for support. r J rinkets made by convalescent soldiers in France 
sold at prices far in excess of their actual value. Whatever ambition 
the men might have had for practical work was thus paralyzed and 
they continued to make these trifles long after they were physically 
able to perform work of a different type. The result was that the 
men's infirmities were capitalized and they were made dependents 
on public beneficence. 

In Germany it is provided that there shall be no waste of time on 
useless occupations. The Krupps firm at Essen have established a 
curative workshop for disabled men under medical supervision. Dr. 
Tjaden said in a lecture in Bremen: 

The systematic influencing of the invalid’s will power is of the greatest im¬ 
portance. * * * To employ the invalid for any length of time on trivial 

work does not seem suitable. It is much better to employ him at gainful work 
as soon as possible and to arouse in him consciousness that he still is able to 
perform efficient work. 

Herbert Corey thus describes German methods of reeducation: 

The plan is to make every man self-supporting after the war, no matter how 
little of him may be left. It is infinitely better for the man and for Germany 
when the war ends. The Germans never forget the hideous nightmare of their 
present existence. It is recognized that the work of every hand will be needed. 
The man who has but one hand must be fitted to do his part for his country’* 
sake if not for his own. 

During the latter part of the stay in the hospital of these torn and broken 
men they are carefully studied by the men who have made themselves experts 
to meet this exigency. Their intelligence, their education, their nervous re¬ 
actions, everything about them is card indexed and tested. * * * 

When they have gained enough strength, the training for their future life 
work is begun. Practical Germany never wastes time on raffia and leather 
working and souvenir boxes and the rest of the tragic uselessness that the 
maimed men is too often set adoing. The German theory is that there is no 
active market for hideously ugly bags made out of knotted cord, or for hand- 
hammered tin biscuit boxes which counterfeit unconvincingly a silversmith’s 
handiwork. Furthermore, the German theory is that the maimed man realizes 
this and that the heart is taken out of him by it. If he can do something— 
even a very little thing—which is of real use in the world, he chirks up and is 
happy. But if he feels himself condemned to be an object of charity for all 
his remaining days, the heart dies in him. 

So that whatever it is the inutile is trained to do, it is at least practical and 
salable. Pie may only have one arm left of his original complement of limbs, 
but the poor remnant of what was once a man can still run a lathe. A man 
without arms and with only one leg is able to run a heavy press in a Bavarian 
factory, since it is directed by foot treadles. The training is conducted by real 
“ efficiency experts,” who develop the last ounce of capacity in the man and who 
are, of course, aided by the impassioned effort of the man himself, for he is 
invariably pathetically anxious to make himself a really valuable producing 
member of society again. 

Many of. these men, according to my information from German sources, are 
earning more money than they did before the war. Very few, indeed, have 
had to be abandoned as wholly useless wreckage, to be supported by public 
charity until death shall release them. None of the mutiles are released from 
the army until their training has been completed, in order that they may be 
held under rigid discipline during the training period. 

The expediency of commencing vocational education in the hospi¬ 
tals has been established by the experience of France, Canada, and 
Belgium. It has been found, moreover, that the men respond far 
better to work of a practical type in the curative workshop than to 
time-passing or trivial occupations. These have served their func¬ 
tions in invalid occupations by lessening the long hours, preparing 


54 TRAINING OP TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


the patient’s mind for real work, and in many cases actually giving 
practical work in general education and simple processes which lead 
directly to work of a more complex character-in the curative work¬ 
shop. In order that the handicapped man may be really convinced 
that there is a future of economic independence ahead of him he must 
feel that he is doing, however inadequately, “a man’s job” from the 
earliest possible moment. 

Before the vocational education was introduced, many of the men dreaded to 
be discharged and cut off from military pay and allowance, but since the classes 
have been well established some men who have gained new wage-earning ability 
from their acquired technical knowledge often welcome their discharge and 
boldly step into better positions than they ever occupied before. 1 

While the work is intended primarily to be curative for mind and 
body, experience has shown that many men with the development of 
mechanical skill have attained the ability to interpret blue prints, a 
knowledge of shop arithmetic and mechanical drawing, and that they 
have actually increased their commercial value in after life. 

These things can be and are being imparted to men in the convalescent hospi¬ 
tals, and cases have already occurred in which men have returned to civil life 
and taken better positions than they held before enlistment in consequence -of 
the training received during convalescence. 2 

In some cases this educational work in the convalescent home has been of 
such value to the men taking it that they have secured positions that pay them 
50 to 100 per cent more than the ones which they filled prior to enlistment. 3 

The Dilution of Labor Bulletin 4 of the British Ministry of Muni¬ 
tions states that the handicapped men have passed from training 
into employment as gauge makers, tool setters, tool turners, tool 
hardeners, viewers, molders, millers, and core makers, skilled turners, 
fitters, capstan hands, aero erectors and assemblers, sheet-metal work¬ 
ers, and press workers. 

The instruction in turning usually has included screw cutting, tool 
setting for capstans and machines, others have learned the use of 
plain, universal millers, grinders, cylindrical cutter grinders, shapers, 
etc. They learn molding, aluminum castings, and make heavy and 
complicated cores. 

In Canada men have become concrete and sanitary inspectors as a 
result of training, and in Italy as well as Canada the men are learn¬ 
ing to operate motor tractors instead of plows. In England they are 
learning to make and repair shoes by machinery instead of the old- 
fashioned and overcrowded trade of cobbling. 

The need for trained oxy-acet}dene welders has been felt in every 
country. Oxy-acetylene welding is, moreover, possible for men w T ith 
leg disabilities and for the one armed, provided there is strength in 
the remaining arm to move the blowpipe over continuously long 
periods of time and provided that the artificial arm can manipu¬ 
late filling material if such is necessary. In Germany in 1916 
Mr. Theodore Kautny, director of the Boyal School for Machine 
Building in Cologne, had trained 20,000 men disabled from the 
front to be expert oxy-acetylene welders. He devised a lightweight 
blowpipe for the use of these men. They were called “ Kautny’s 


1 Military Hospitals Commission of Canada Report, May, 1917. 

2 Monthly Review of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, October, 1917. 

3 L. V. Sharp, in American Journal of Care for Cripples, Vol. IV, No. 2. 

4 Vol. II, No. 1. 






TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 55 

army.” Great. Britain has made a study of courses and methods for 
training her disabled for this important service. A serious shortage 
of oxy-acetylene welders at the beginning of the war faced this coun- 
try Not only are welders greatly in demand but the training is par¬ 
ticularly suitable for many cases in the curative workshop. These 
men will render valuable service back of the lines, and they will also 
be skilled m an occupation which is destined to be of commercial 
value. 

Polishing glass for asphyxiating-gas masks and lens grinding are 
other occupations practical for some curative workshops. 

By proper organization of the reconstruction hospital this vocational training 
can be instituted as soon as the patient is able to leave his bed, and by the 
time he is ready to leave the hospital properly equipped with an artificial limb 
he is also properly equipped for his trade or profession. Using the workshop as 
a form of medical treatment is one of the many ways in which the various 
departments of the hospital dovetail into one another and justify its existence 
as an organic whole . 1 2 * 


' REMUNERATION OF MEN IN WORKSHOPS. 


The remuneration of men doing work of commercial or marketable 
value in the curative workshop or vocational schools offers a difficult 
problem. Proper recompense has been found to stimulate the men. 
On the other hand, competition between men of different capabilities 
and with different degrees of handicap is obviously unwise. Fur¬ 
thermore, a man’s future productivity may be increased by perform¬ 
ing work of no commercial value during training and so a premium 
should not be placed on immediate returns. 

There are difficulties of bookkeeping and also of the disposal of the articles 
made, where large numbers of men are concerned. There is also the serious 
danger of the goods being sold on a compassionate basis, and not at market 
prices. Also, if large quantities are produced for sale, there is the probability 
of protests similar to those made against the sale of prison-made goods being 
made against the sale of articles produced in the convalescent hospital work¬ 
shop . 9 

When, however, certain disabilities are grouped together in special 
institutions, as, for instance, the insane, the war neuroses, the tuber¬ 
cular, the blind, etc., and work of a commercial value is prescribed, it 
is desirable that the men should receive some remuneration within 
these narrow limits. 

At the Grand Palais in France the men are paid 2 cents an hour, 
increasing to 4.1 cents. They work for the army or the public or 
their work is sold commercially. 8 In Italy the soldier receives about 
20 cents a day for his work in training. 

In the workshops of the Royal Orthopedic Reserve Hospital at 
Nurnberg 4 a clever method of remunerating the men and at the same 
time preventing unfair competitive struggle has been worked out. 
The payment for work which is sold is based upon the usual rate of 
pay per hour. Instead of giving the money to the patients a notice 
is posted in each shop reading: “ Your earnings will be used for the 
benefit of war invalids.” In the Krupp’s curative workshop at Essen 

1 Dr. Loo Mayer. in American Journal of Care for Cripples, Vol. V, No. 1. 

2 T. II. Kidner, address in Boston, Nov. 15, 1017. 

8 Monthly Review, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, June, 1917. 

4 American Journal of Care for Cripples, Vol. IV, No. 2. 



56 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

the men receive special allowances and in addition the customary rate 
of wages for all useful work. 

New Zealanders undergoing training in England are not permitted 
to receive pay from employers on the ground that they have not been 
discharged from the army. The labor unions made trouble over em¬ 
ployer’s nonpayment privileges, and it was decided to pay their 
wages to charity. 

In Canada in the carpenter shops of the military hospitals com¬ 
mission 25 per cent of the retail price of the article is taken for 
material and overhead expenses and the remaining 75 per cent goes 
to the soldier pupil. It is provided that the soldiers may draw 20 
per cent of their earnings, 80 per cent being reserved for a fund to 
be given them on discharge. The patients receive work for repair¬ 
ing in the shoe shop, and those who take training in agriculture in 
Alberta receive returns from gardens and poultry yards. 

In one district the proceeds (from the men’s work) are put into a common 
fund, managed by a committee of officials and patients, the fund being used 
to purchase extras of various kinds for the men themselves. From another 
center there has just come in a suggestion that army profits accruing .shall be 
handed to the Red Cross funds. My personal opinion is that if it be possible 
to arrange it a man who is industrious should receive some monetary benefit 
from his labor. 1 

Dr. Leo Mayer believes it best to pay the men a small gratuity 
and give them the benefit of the proceeds from the sales of articles 
made by them. 

MARKETABLE PRODUCTS. 

As far as is consistent with work prescriptions and vocational 
education it is desirable to have the men make marketable products. 
Armature winding and insulation of electrical equipment, mas¬ 
saging, and telephone operating with drop-shutter system have been 
found practical for the blind. 2 Massage tables, bed trays, hospital 
furniture, supplies, and repairs may be made in the workshops. 
Necessary plumbing, painting, glazing, carpentry, tailoring, and up¬ 
keep of automobiles about the hospitals should be included in shop 
instructions. Many men may be used in making artificial appliances 
in the curative workshop of an orthopedic hospital. 

The foreign countries have combed the United States for makers 
of artificial arms and legs. It was found that one firm preferred to 
employ crippled men in the making of prosthetic appliances, for the 
reason that they made the most intelligent workmen, and their 
own experience afforded many helpful suggestions. Canada has es¬ 
tablished a factory at the new orthopedic hospital in North Toronto. 
The military hospitals commission found it necessary to train its 
own limb makers. Whenever possible men who wear artificial limbs 
are being taught and employed in the factory. As the limbs 
have to be repaired and overhauled, it is desirable that the men 
wearing them be acquainted with their mechanism, so they may 
make minor repairs themselves. Especially is this desirable for the 
men in rural districts who are far distant from a source of repair. 
The commission has a decided advantage in taking hold of the 

1 T. B. Kidner, in an address given in Boston, Nov. 15, 1917. 

2 After a few days’ training these men are able to earn $2 per day on electrical plants. 
The masseurs receive $12.13 a week. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 57 


problem. The commission is able to secure the most up-to-date im¬ 
provements, by arrangement with various patentees, and is in a posi¬ 
tion, should any patentee refuse to lease his rights, to require him to 
do so and to submit the matter to arbitration. 

There Is a considerable profit in the manufacture of limbs, a large propor¬ 
tion of which is devoted by the makers to advertising and sale, neither of which 
charges would fall upon the commission in connection with its own factory. 1 

In a Vienna hospital controlled by Prof. Spitzy no soldier with 
an amputation is given discharge until he has served four weeks 
in the department where artificial limbs are made and has received 
a certificate showing he can repair his own appliances. The ablest 
men are retained in the shop to be the teachers of new patients. 

Here, then, is a practical and useful occupation for that group 
of convalescents in the curative workshops who need the therapeutic 
effect of work, but who do not need vocational training, and who 
will need to know how to repair and keep their own appliances in 
order. Inasmuch as there was a shortage of brace makers before 
the war, and as most of them have gone to France and England, the 
manufacture of artificial appliances opens a real profession for many 
of the disabled, at the same time filling a national need. 

Dr. Salmon suggests for the workshops of patients with neuroses 
that— 

It is desirable to begin with a few absolutely necessary things and to add 
those made by the patients themselves. When this is done every piece of appa¬ 
ratus is invested, in the eyes of the patients, with the spirit of achievement 
through persistent effort—the very keynote of treatment. The fact that it has 
been made by the patient’s recovering from neuroses will help hundreds of sub¬ 
sequent patients through the force of hopeful suggestion.* * 

This seems especially desirable in the workshops for the war 
neuroses and psychoses, where the percentage of officers is relatively 
high and where they will return more probably to the professions 
than to the trades. Here, training is therapeutic rather than voca¬ 
tional. 

OVERLAPPING OF STAGES OF REHABILITATION. 

Occupational therapy in the rehabilitation of the disabled forms 
the vital link between medical treatment and vocational education. 
Medical treatment without occupational therapy and vocational edu¬ 
cation is powerless to accomplish industrial rehabilitation. Voca¬ 
tional education, on the other hand, can not effect rehabilitation after 
the completion of medical treatment unless the patient’s mind was 
prepared during convalescence by definite occupation so that he 
wishes to become a productive citizen. So important a place has it 
come to hold in the treatment of war invalids that the follow ing reso-. 
lution was passed by the interallied conference held in Paris May 
8-12, 1917: 

In view of the constancy of the psychic factor in all matters relating to tech¬ 
nical reeducation of the disabled, it is necessary in reeducation to unite psycho- 
therapeutics with physiotlierapeutics and to recognize the psychotherapeutic 
value of technical works. (Resolution No. 41.) 


1 Military Hospitals Commission of Canada Report. May. 1917. 

* Psychiatric Bulletin, Now York State Hospitals, July, 1917. 




58 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

At the same conference— 

All delegates were agreed on the necessity of having all physical training 
and treatment under strict medical supervision until such time as the ^patient 
is ready to be sent back to the Army in some capacity or another, or, if judged 
unfit for military service, is ready to begin reeducation of a purely professional 
kind. 

The curative workshop is directly under the supervision of the 
medical authorities. The most cordial cooperation between the physi¬ 
cian and the occupation instructor is necessary in order to secure the 
best results in rehabilitation. 

Training and secondary treatment are interdependent, and at least in the 
earlier stages the training should be supervised by medical experts . 1 

Vocational reeducation prolongs and completes functional reeducation. They 
constitute together an undeniable physiological unity, but it is necessary that 
they form a psychological union in the sense that the wounded should be 
prepared from the hospital for his future career . 52 3 

Close collaboration between doctor and technical advisor is indispensable for 
complete reeducation; it is also indispensable for guiding the injured man and 
starting him on sound lines from the outset of reeducation. Reeducation must 
follow immediately after medical treatment and even overlap it . 8 

CONTRIBUTIONS OF VOCATIONAL EXPERT. 

Since reeducation overlaps medical treatment, since work pre¬ 
paratory to vocational education, and even vocational education 
itself, exists in the curative workshop, and since these men must be 
guided from the first toward their future careers, it is necessary that 
the vocational officer be consulted as soon as the patient’s general 
condition is good and prognosis fairly certain, otherwise there will be 
a tremendous waste of time, energy, and money. 

The men have been recruited from widely diversified interests, 
occupations, and environments. They vary moreover in education, 
experience, and natural intelligence. The choice of an occupation, 
new or old, is a matter of serious consideration and must be jointly 
decided by the medical and vocational officers. Once the patient’s 
vocation is determined upon, or several occupations are suggested for 
observation or practice in the curative workshop, it then becomes the 
duty of the occupational therapeutist to train the patient in those 
lines in so far as they are consistent with the physician’s instructions. 

Appendix V suggests blanks for charting the patient’s vocational 
history, his record in the curative workshop, his vocational training 
at hospital discharge, and his later record in the vocational school, 
if such is necessary. 

The convalescent patient begins with short periods of work, and 
as his recovery progresses the time required for medical treatments 
decreases, while the time for work increases. Just as occupational 
therapy utilizes the waste time between medical treatments and be¬ 
comes more and more important as the patient recovers, so the duties 
of the vocational experts become increasingly important. It might 
be said that early in the convalescence the medical treatment is the 
chief concern, and as it diminishes in importance as the patient 


1 L. G. Brock, in American Journal of Care for Cripples, Vol. IV, No 1. 

2 Translated from Organisation Physiologique du Travail, by Jules Amar. 

3 Bulletin No. 1, Ann€e 1916, Office National des Mutilgs et r§form6s de la Guerre. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 59 


recovers, the value of training increases in proportion, so that at the 
close of convalescence and hospital discharge training is the primary 
concern. F rom this point the patient enters either a civilian occupa¬ 
tion or a regular vocational school no longer under medical authority. 

In orthopedic cases it will be necessary for the vocational expert 
to be present when the functional power of a limb is determined 
by Amur’s or other tests. From these readings and the predictions 
of the doctors as to the patient’s future physical condition, the voca¬ 
tional expert must decide upon that occupation which is best suited 
to his infirmities. 

In cases of amputation, such tests as Prof. Amur’s are of great 
value. The purpose of Amar’s tests is to determine: 


} Instruments used for tests. 


I. The fitness of the stump for reeducation. 

II. The amount of power in it. 

Measured by laboratpry experiments. 

Arthrodynamometer. ] 

Ergometric cycle. 

Chirograph. 

Dynamograph. J 

III. Condition of senses, sight, touch, hearing. 

IV. Condition of heart, lungs, nerve centers. 

Test to measure respiratory changes as indicating degree of 
fatigue to which patient is subjected. 

V. State of reflexes—speed or reactions—coordination. 


The result of Amar’s tests show that 80 per cent of the maimed or 
mutilated are capable of reeducation. Of these 45 per cent are totally 
reeducable with specialization, 20 per cent are partially so and 15 
per cent fragmentarily. Future discouragements, makeshifts, and 
misfits are reduced to the minimum by the actual knowledge of the 
power and strength of the man. Functional abnormalities are over¬ 
come as far as possible and resistance to fatigue increased to the 
maximum before placement is attempted. Permanency and suc¬ 
cess logically follow. 


The question of prosthesis is closely connected with that of vocational re¬ 
education, for without comfortable artificial limbs the maimed can do no work. 
It is an art, or a science, which has progressed greatly during the war. 1 

A considerable period of time must elapse between the amputation 
and the final fitting of the artificial member or the completion of 
functional reeducation. This period will prove of value both to the 
medical and vocational expert in helping to determine the man’s 
physical future through observation of his methods and disposition 
in the hospital workshop. Since the purpose of all appliances is to 
enable the man to follow either his old occupation or learn a new 
one, it is well to know at the time of selection for what occupation 
the appliance will be used. Inasmuch as the occupation is deter¬ 
mined by the vocational expert, his cooperation at the point of 
selecting the appliance is most necessary. For instance, from the 
vocational point of view there are several points to be considered 
in the selection of artificial arms. There is, first, the necessity of 
any appliance at all, since many patients can best adapt themselves 
to some occupations without an applianc6. Second, the effect on 
the appliance of possible devices in machinery and modifications in 


iM. H6vys, Paris, in American Journal of Care for Cripples, VoL IV, No. 2. 




60 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


tools. Third, the question whether the type of appliance * 1 2 3 4 5 shall be 
simple, durable, light, or mechanical, according to the work it will 
be called upon to perform. Fourth, the question of the nearness of 
the patient to centers of manufacture for repairs on complicated 
apparatus. 

(a) Occupational direction .—The vocational expert has a distinct 
contribution to make toward rehabilitation. Together with the 
doctor, after consulting the patient for his preferences and interests, 
he must decide what occupation had best be followed. The doctor 
knows his physical limitations, the probable effect of that limitation 
upon his general health, the greater handicap of increasing years and 
recurrent illnesses. The vocational expert, on the other hand, knows 
the industrial handicap which the. patient’s disability will prove in 
competition with normal workers. In the choice of an occupation 
he will aim to utilize to the full the man’s intelligence and the sound 
members of his body, rather than to depend upon the reeducation of 
a doubtful member. In many cases the wisest training will be to 
make skillful left-handed men, rather than to reeducate an impaired 
right arm or trust to an appliance. 

In the main the one-armed must be led away from manual occu¬ 
pations. An artificial arm reduces output about 25 per cent. It is 
different with artificial legs. Men with amputated legs can stand 
at their work, provided the amputation was below the knee. Lesions 
of limbs frequently require more careful selection of trades than 
in the case of amputated limbs. Men with head injuries should be 
placed so that there may be no accident through dizziness and so 
that the posture does not aggravate the lesion. The handicapped 
should avoid occupations which have increased liability to accident 
and are hazardous for a remaining member, such as grinding for 
a man with one eye and stamping for a one-armed man. The voca¬ 
tional expert must decide whether the patient will be best able to 
continue his former occupation or undertake a new one, in the light 
of his former occupation, education, experience, social status, natural 
intelligence, and other characteristics. Whenever possible, the man 
should be directed into a former occupation so that all possible use 
may be made of his past experience. 

The men for whom training will be necessary in new occupations 
are, first, those- who have been previously employed in heavy trades 
or in those in which their disability makes it impossible for them to 
continue; second, those who before the war have been employed on 
juvenile trades; third, those who have shifted about, working at dif¬ 
ferent jobs and unable to do any one thing well; and, fourth, those 
who before the war were classed as “ unemployable ” except in times 
of labor scarcity. Of the last class it has been said that if they could 
be put under military discipline and made to learn a trade they 


i “ The F renc h have two arms, one for strength and one for skill,” Jules Amar, 
Academie des Sciences Comptes Rendes, 1916, v. 162. The following devices are noted 
in the American Journal of Care for Cripples, Vol. IV, No. 2 : 

1. Grip designed to hold tool in any position. Modification enables mechanic to hold 
screw driver, hammer, and file (three different positions). 

2. Gauntlet for cases of musclo-spiral paralysis. 

3. Socket and stirrup for digging equipped with joint for raising and lowering. 

4. Clip and block for stitching and putting covers on books. 

5. Loom fitted for one-armed. 


6. Stitching pad for boot work for man without a sound knee to press against. 
Resolution 89c of the interallied conference, passed May 11, 1917, provides that 
“ blind men who have lost an arm will receive the special knife invented by M. Lotz.” 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 61 

would become productive instead of a drain. Government control 
affords an opportunity to teach these men. 

When a new occupation is selected it should be one whose processes 
are kindred to the old trade and whose tools and raw materials will 
be as familiar to the worker as practicable. If the patient comes 
from a rural community or if he will undertake an agricultural 
course, he should be persuaded to do so. The skilled trades offer the 
best possibilities for permanent employment. Unemployment is seri¬ 
ous for the handicapped since they can not easily adjust themselves 
to the shiftings of the labor market. Only those men who are in¬ 
capable of becoming skilled should be absorbed in the unskilled or 
semiskilled trades. The vocational expert kmrws what training will 
be adequate to prepare the patient for the selected occupation and 
what results may be anticipated upon the completion of training. 
He is, moreover, familiar with the trades and knows those which re¬ 
quire degrees and kinds of musctilar exertion as well as those in which 
there is dust, noise, fumes, vibration, dampness, dryness, exposure, 
and extremes or unevenness of temperature. The vocational man 
understands the opportunities for employment, for he knows what 
trades are standard, seasonal, and least crowded. When vocational 
experts have not directed the careers of the patients such serious mis¬ 
takes have been made as that of France permitting 90 per cent of the 
wounded from rural communities to train for clerical positions. An 
active propaganda designed to attract returning men to the land is 
attempting to overcome this early blunder. 

(b) Classification of duties of vocational expert. —The following 
classification indicates the duties of the vocational expert in relation 
to each group. He must know in advance which patients require only 
placing and which need either occupational therapy, vocational edu¬ 
cation, or both: 

1. Disabled for service. Able to return to former work or work for which they 

need no vocatidnal training. 

A. Placement. 

2. In need of further medical treatment. Upon discharge will be able to follow 

former occupation or take up new without vocational training. 

A. Occupational therapy. 

B. Placement. 

3. In need of no further medical treatment but unable to follow former occupa¬ 

tion and new vocation necessary. % 

A. Vocational training. 

B. Placement. 

4. In need of further medical treatment and new vocation. 

A. Occupational therapy or prevocational training. 

B. Vocational training. 

C. Placement. 

5. In need of permanent medical supervision or unable to compete in any regu¬ 

lar vocation. Not totally disabled for special and limited work. 

A. Occupational therapy until cured as far as possible. 

B. Placement in workshop specially provided for this class. 

CONTROL OF MEN DURING REEDUCATION. 

The question whether control of the men during reeducation should 
be by military discipline is one of the most important and funda¬ 
mental problems of rehabilitation. It is stated in reports of the 
interallied conference held in Paris in May, 1917, that the training 
is compulsory and under military discipline in France and Italy, 1 


1 Training in Italy is required for six months only. 





62 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

since the men are not discharged from the army and navy till their 
training is completed. Frequent references are found, however, to 
the effect that the men have to be persuaded to take vocational train¬ 
ing in these countries. A recent visitor at one of the large reedu¬ 
cation centers near Paris states that the men are induced to take 
training by being allowed to stay in the shops where their friends are 
working. 

Military discipline and compulsory training seem to have been 
only partially successful, while the French Minister of Education 
says: 

Very many disabled soldiers refuse to avail themselves of the facilities of 
“ reeducation professionnelle ” * * *. There is probably a very simple expla¬ 
nation to the puzzle of these conflicting statements; compulsory “ reeducation ” 
may be perfectly lawful in France, but may never or hardly ever occur * * *. 
In any case, however, compulsion of this kind is rare in France, if it occurs at 
all, and is recognized as generally impracticable. 

Belgium is the only one of the allied nations which is able to en¬ 
force training during convalescence, due to the fact that the entire 
male population of Belgium is mobilized and that many of the men, 
having no homes to return to, remain as patients for long periods of 
time. The French Minister of Education also says: 

Still more instructive, however, is the evidence as to the great Belgian Insti¬ 
tute for Disabled Soldiers, the largest and most remarkable institution of its 
kind that has ever existed. Here there is no doubt at all as to the propriety 
any more than as to the legality of compulsory training, but it is found to be 
ineffective as training. M. Alleman, the director of studies there, says: “ Com¬ 
pulsion should never be employed. In certain schools 80 per cent of failures 
have occurred through misapprehension of this principle.” 

Thus, neither Belgian experience nor French bears out the idea, which not 
long ago had some currency, that the compulsory powers of army discipline can 
be used with advantage in training the disabled to new trades or professions. 

In England training is neither compulsory nor under military 
discipline. In Canada the problem of control during reeducation 
has been more satisfactorily worked out than in any of the other 
countries. The men are under military discipline as long as they are 
convalescing in the hospitals and receiving occupational therapy in 
the curative worpshops. Upon discharge from the hospital they are 
given their pensions, which are based on disability, not on earning 
power developed in the workshop. The men who need further voca¬ 
tional training come under the control of the vocational branch of 
the military hospitals commission command. It is still possible to 
exert authority over a man if there is evidence that he wdll not apply 
himself to his work or if it appears that his environment and habits 
are such that the effects of his treatment will be affected. The men 
are, however, placed upon their own responsibility just as soon as it 
is certain that their health and future will not be jeopardized. 

Disabled soldiers and sailors are men who have been accustomed 
to military discipline. Military life, with its obedience to orders, 
has a tendency to prevent individual thinking and to crush natural 
initiative. 

He shudders at the idea of entering an occupation again when he has to 
continuously apply himself for hours and hours every day, just to earn a 
mediocre living. * * * Military life is exciting, but ordinarily it is not 

really as hard as civilian life, except for a few supreme hours when called upon 
for great effort. 1 


1 Dr. F. H. Sexton, address, Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 15, 1917. 




TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 63 


A wounded Canadian officer, discharged from a hospital, expressed 
his surprise at finding that he had to think for the first time in three 
years when and where and what to eat. The return to civilian life 
is difficult and imposes a severe mental strain. Yet since these men 
must enter industry as civilians, the sooner they make the adjustment 
the better. T. B. Ividner, vocational secretary of the military hos¬ 
pitals commission, has said: 

I feel that it is important that a man should be discharged as soon as he 
can think for himself, irrespective of the fact of whether or not his vocational 
training is finished. I am strongly of the opinion that the more you can sur¬ 
round the men with a civil atmosphere the better it is. 

Partly for this reason and partly because the schools can not fur¬ 
nish complete training in all lines, it is desirable that part of the 
vocational training be taken in a factory under real working condi¬ 
tions . 1 

While we shall continue to do a great deal of reeducation in our own schools 
and classes, we hope to arrange that all reeducation cases shall spend, if not 
the whole, at least the final period of training in some commercial industrial 
establishment, under actual working conditions, punching the time clock regu¬ 
larly, and in other ways adjusting themselves once more to reliance on them¬ 
selves and regular civilian ways.* 

England has also found that it is advisable to adjust men to indus¬ 
trial demands in actual shops and factories. The Dilution of Labour 
Bulletin, issued by the ministry of munitions of England, states: 

It must be remembered that a man, by losing a limb, does not necessarily 
acquire a fresh habit of life. Maimed men should, therefore, when possible, 
always pass through either an instructional factory or similar institution or a 
shop in which for a few weeks they can be sure of individual attention and 
tolerance, in order that they may acquire or reacquire the habits of shop 
discipline. 

Canada has found that it is not difficult to maintain control of the 
men taking vocational education without military discipline. Eng¬ 
lish experience is much the same. In both countries the men receive 
allowances during training, which are forfeited on failure of good 


1 In France the men were given an allowance to live at home and take instruction in 
actual factories and shops. 

“ Apparently the plan did not work well for several reasons, among them being that 
no guaranty was given that real instruction would be afforded the pupil ; neither was 
the position of the disabled always satisfactory in relation to the unwounded workman. 

“ Notwithstanding this, we are now endeavoring in Canada to carry out a plan 
whereby partially disabled men will be received into private industrial establishments 
for vocational reeducation. 

“ First, only limited variety of occupations can be taught in schools. 

“ Second, that in a very few cases is it possible to give training in school workshop 
on commercial lines.” (T. B. Kidner, address, Boston, Nov. 15, 1917.) 

When a man is apprenticed in Canada the Government assumes all risk and expense. 
The Government pays him regular salary, the employer not paying him anything until 
he becomes of use to the employer. When he does become or use the employer notifies 
the vocational officer that he would pay the man a certain sum, which reduces his pay 
from the Government just that much. 

This arrangement would last for a year or until such time as the employer found the 
man would never make a competent worker. In such event the vocational officer as¬ 
sumes charge of him. The result is : 

“ The employer takes no risk ; the patient is constantly learning. It costs the Gov¬ 
ernment no more, and in the end makes a useful citizen out of an otherwise worthless 
one It is strictly an economic problem so far as the employer is concerned, involves 
no financial loss on his part, and. if entered into in the right spirit by employers, will 
reduce the taxes for pensions enormously in the end.” (F. B. Magbuson’s report given 
before the Illinois Council of National Defense.) 

In the boot and shoe repairing as well as in the liand-sewn boot and shoe making 
trades the British minister of pensions authorizes the payment of fees of 5s. and 7s. (id., 
respectively, per week to the employer for the first six months of a man's apprentice- 

m VT. B. Kidner’s address, Boston, Mass., Nov, 15, 1917, 



64 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


conduct. Of the actual working of the system in Canada, Mr. Kidner 
says: 

If a man absents himself from classes without cause, or he leaves the class, 
the district vocational officer warns the man that he may be liable, and that 
his course may be liable to be canceled. That is all the hold we want. 

The control of the men during reeducation in Canada resolves into: 
First, control by military authority during convalescence and before 
hospital discharge; and, second, control decided in individual cases 
by the vocational branch after hospital discharge and during voca¬ 
tional education. It is recognized that the period of adjustment after 
hospital discharge is particularly perilous, and every effort is made 
during the period of vocational education to help the patient accom¬ 
modate himself to the demands of civilian life. It is absolutely neces¬ 
sary that the amount of the pension be determined after hospital 
discharge, so that the men may enter on their vocational work know¬ 
ing that no reduction will be possible and that any earning capacity 
they acquire will be in addition to their pension. 

Inasmuch as the period of adjustment to civilian life is difficult, 
and since only about 20 per cent of the men have the opportunity to 
adjust themselves during the period of vocational education, it is 
evident that some kind of preparation for civilian life must be 
offered to the 80 per cent who will be able to return to their former 
work after convalescence without further training. The curative 
workshop, like the other departments of the hospital, must be under 
military discipline. Authority is necessary during convalescence so 
that the men shall not retard or even permanently prevent their re¬ 
covery by excessive exercise or rest, wrong food, or bad habits. The 
“work prescription” must be enforced just as rigidly as any other 
kind of prescription. Beyond this point, and except in rare in¬ 
stances, there should be no recourse to military discipline. 

The greatest benefit derived by the men is the hardening of mind and muscle 
in preparation for civilian life. For many months they have not been compelled 
to think for themselves, nor have they been forced to think of their own food 
or raiment or the welfare of their families. For the greater part of the time 
the daily effort required in-military life has not been as great as they formerly 
made in earning a living. After the pain and suffering of their wounds are 
allayed they spend many weeks in hospitals and convalescent homes in a state 
of pampered and glorified idleness. The classes fill in the gaps between the 
other items of routine, such as massage, physical training, etc., and produce a 
well-ordered and well-rounded day, much like the civilian life which they are 
rapidly approaching. 1 

In order that the men may as far as possible be surrounded by 
civilian atmosphere, the instructors should not be in uniform. The 
men— 

regard the uniform as a badge of military honor, to be won in actual battle 
experience, and although they have entire respect for a civilian expert in some 
particular line they would not have the same respect for the same civilian if 
they considered him masquerading as a military officer when not actually a 
military man. If expert civilians are to be used for this purpose, there is still 
another reason against commissioning them and putting them in uniform. This 
consists in the natural breach between the officer and the private. 2 

In Canada there are instances of men taken out of the military 
service to teach as civilians. One of the most important features 


1 Military Hospitals Commission of Canada Report. May, 1917. 

2 Douglas C. McMurtrie, in the Survey, Nov. 3, 1917. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 65 

for the success of occupational therapy is the personal relationship 
o teacher to pupil. Rank is an invisible barrier and prevents a pri¬ 
vate from giving to an officer the intimate details of his life which 
may be important to the determination of his future career. When 
the officer or instructor is in civilian clothes, however, when he ad¬ 
dresses the patient as Mr.-, or calls him by his first name, and 

treats him as an equal, he inspires both friendship and confidence, 
and the success of rehabilitation in many cases depends upon just 
such contacts. 

So the vocational officers establish over the men an influence more effective 
than cold and formal discipline. It is established by painstaking and indi¬ 
vidual attention, tact, an understanding sympathy, and personal force. Its 
establishment is costly in that the number of soldiers under such “discipline” 
by a given man is limited, and in that the strength of character and general 
caliber of the vocational official must be well above the average. Lacking in 
these qualifications, the adviser must be a failure in his job, and the quicker 
he is weeded out the better for his pupil veterans . 1 

The work during convalescence must be so interesting and instruc¬ 
tive that not only will discipline be unnecessary, but that the men 
who will need further training after discharge will be willing and 
eager to undertake it. An unwilling pupil is unresponsive, and, in 
addition, a poor investment. Military discipline must be wisely 
and sparingly used lest it defeat the very purpose for which it is 
intended by forcing the men to work and prejudicing them against 
further training or civilian employment upon discharge. 

The processes of adjustment involve a nervous reeducation in 
which occupation proves a more effective agent than either medicine 
or discipline. 

Disciplinary troubles which are always present when a body of men have 
time hanging heavily on their hands disappear almost entirely when vocational 
classes are established. * * * As a pioneer in the field of occupational 

therapy on this continent has well put it, ‘‘a better job, or a job done better,” 
is the motto for the* self-improvement classes provided during convalescence . 2 

Civilian occupation is the best instrument for breaking down mili¬ 
tary habits and reestablishing initiative and continuous effort. Work 
properly conducted is the best form of self-discipline, as it should 
teach the patient to think for himself, develop his latent resources, 
inspire ambition, and, above all, create regular habits of industry 
and thought. Such habits must be self-imposed; they can not be 
commanded. 


PERMANENT PROVISION FOR DISABLED MEN. 

Permanent provision must be made for the medical treatment, 
vocational training, placement, and follow work for the disabled 
men. 

Disabled men frequently become ill and have a recurrence of their 
disability. Such men must be allowed to reenlist for the period of 
their illness so that they may not run the risk of being in some 
charitable institution with themselves and dependents unprovided 
for. Any man who has been disabled in his country’s service should 
be entitled for the rest of his life to whatever medical care he may 


1 Douglas C. McMurtrie, in the Survey, Nov. 3, 1017. 

2 J. L. Todd and T. B. Kidner. The Retraining of Disabled Men. 

69359°—18-5 







66 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

need in a military hospital. Such care should be followed when 
necessary by occupational therapy and upon recovery he should again 
haves assistance in securing employment. Meanwhile his dependents 
should receive an allowance. Such provision will prevent an 
enormous increase in charity in‘the years following the war and 
prevent as well the once rehabilitated man from falling into the 
pitiful ranks of the handicapped after a period of illness. Follow 
work with a confidential guide of all disabled men is necessary to 
insure tjie permanency of rehabilitation and to prevent any duplica¬ 
tion of effort in their behalf. France maintains a follow system 
through the national office. Canada is establishing a follow system 
for her reeducation cases. 

The machinery built up to deal with war invalids will be valuable 
in conserving the health of the civil population after the war. Of 
the tuberculosis situation in Canada the military hospitals commis¬ 
sion report of May, 1917, states that— 

The problem handled by the commission is largely a civilian one, and the 
result of the work which has been done should have a marked influence on the 
future. 

DEMOBILIZATION. 

The problem of demobilization is a complicated one. Every re¬ 
turned man placed and absorbed in industry lessens the difficulty, 
says Mr. Kidner. 

It will be found that in many instances any special machinery devised for 
dealing with the problems of disabled men can usefully be employed in meeting 
the problems of demobilization and employment after the war. 1 

VALUE OF CIVILIAN STRENGTH AND VITALITY. 

The power of a nation lies in its civilian strength and vitality. 
The purpose of the rehabilitation of the disabled -is to prevent the 
drain of dependency and to increase economic usefulness. There are 
two classes of men not included in the disabled from the front whose 
economic usefulness is quite as vital to the welfare of the country 
as is that of the disabled soldier. They are, first, the men returned 
from the front as undesirable but not disabled, and, second, those 
unfit for efficient citizenship as well as military service. 

(a) Rehabilitation of the “ undesirable .”—A group of men so un¬ 
desirable that they have been dismissed from the Army are hardly 
more desirable in a civilian community and their absorption into 
society is attended with serious dangers. That physical conditions 
are frequently the cause of misconduct and inefficiency has long been 
known. If these men can be put through a vigorous medical exami¬ 
nation on their return, all possible abnormal conditions corrected, 
occupational therapy and vocational training given as necessary, 
these men, like the disabled soldiers, might be made serviceable. 

The ministry of pensions in England has agreed that institutional 
treatment might be extended to men discharged for causes not at¬ 
tributable to Avar service. 2 

(b) Rehabilitation of the “unfit ”—The conditions revealed by the 
medical examining boards for enlisted men show that four out of 


1 J. L. Todd and T. B. Kidner. The Retraining of Disabled Men. 

2 War Pensions Gazette, July, 1917. 



TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 67 


every five men who volunteered during 1915 and 1916, and were 
rejected, were refused for causes trivial and absolutely remedial in 
the great majority of cases. 1 2 * A plan has been proposed for the recla¬ 
mation of these men. 

A full realization of the meaning of man power and the tremendous wastage 
which is taking place in our Army is the thing that prompted the reclamation 
plan.* 

When reclamation of these men involves prolonged medical or 
surgical care, occupational therapy followed by vocational training 
will enable many of these men not only to go to the front but to go 
with the training of skilled mechanics and technicians. The men 
not able to go to the front will be equally benefited to serve back of 
the lines. 

It is already evident, however, that many other men would be glad to under¬ 
take vocational training and it is also clear from the records of the industrial 
history of the large majority of the candidates for reeducation that there is 
in Canada a great national need for vocational and industrial training in the 
country at large, apart altogether from the particular aspects of the question 
as applied to disabled soldiers. 8 

Canada estimates that every man who was broken down in train¬ 
ing cost $2,000. At an estimate of the cost of $50 to reclaim a man, 
a hundred million dollars will reclaim 2,000,000 men, and thus H. P. 
Davidson, of the Red Cross, has pointed out that our national wealth 
will have been increased $30,000,000,000. 4 

( c) Rehabilitation of the industrially handicapped .—The indus¬ 
trially crippled and handicapped form a group at all times in need 
of rehabilitation. Kraus, 5 of Germany, claims that only 41 out of 
100 accidental injuries could be accounted for after six years, showing 
complete readaptation on an improved economic condition. There 
are handicapped men who have been properly trained during con¬ 
valescence and who look upon their vocational training as their 
greatest opportunity. Employers have found such men most valu¬ 
able, as they realize the difficulty of securing another position and 
in their desire to compete they often surpass the work of a normal 
man. As Prof. Amar has noted— 

The mutilS possesses always a perfectly utilizable capacity for some kind of 
work. * * * He may actually compensate for his physical deficit by an 

active good will, which increases his social value. This is a psychologic fact 
which must be turned to advantage. 6 


NECESSITY FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY AT ALL TIMES. 


Occupational therapy as a war measure must not be allowed to dis¬ 
tort the present and future needs of occupational therapy out of their 
true proportion. 

It is estimated by the Canadian authorities over-seas, based upon 
the experience of last year, that the numbers of men returning dur¬ 
ing the ensuing year will be at the rate of 1.200 to 1,500 men a month, 
or from 12,400 to 18,000 men for the year. In all probability the 


1 The Surgeon General’s Report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, in “ Reclama¬ 
tion of the Rejected Candidate for the Army.” Modern Hospital, December, 1917. 

2 Dr J. H. Guayle. Modern Hospital, December, 1917. 

a j. l. Todd and T. B. Kidner. The Retraining of Disabled Men. 

4 Modern Hospital, December, 1917. 

6 Journal American Medical Association, Mar. 31, 1915. 

® Scientific American Supplement, Nov. 25, 1916. 




68 TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


number of disabled Americans will not only not exceed that of Can¬ 
ada for the first year at least, but be far less. In 1918 the number 
of industrial accidents involving more than four weeks’ disability 
was 700,000. Industrial accidents have increased since 1913. On 
the basis of the conservative estimate of 1913, however, there are over 
thirty-eight times as many industrial accidents in a year in the 
United States as the maximum number of men expected to return 
to Canada in the next year. 

The disabilities of industrial accidents have many points in com¬ 
mon with the disabilities of war, and if occupational therapy is a 
war measure necessary for the returned soldier and sailor, it would 
seem to be just as urgent for the victims of civil disabilities, who 
outnumber the military victims by a conservative estimate of thirty- 
eight times. In 1910 there were 60,769 inmates in insane asylums. 
Except for a few splendidly conducted institutions, chiefly in Massa¬ 
chusetts, the practice of occupational therapy among the insane is 
far from ideal, yet the insane in the United States in 1910 were 
three times as numerous as the maximum number of men expected to 
return to Canada during the next year. In the same year 1,953,000 
patients were treated in public and philanthropic hospitals in the 
United States and 2,440,000 treated in free dispensaries, a total of 
4,393,000. One per cent of this number, or 43,930 patients, is double 
the number of disabled men returned that Canada will receive on her 
maximum estimate. 

The war emergency and the widespread public interest in war 
cripples makes the present an opportune moment for the serious 
study of the possibilities of occupational therapy, and the standardi¬ 
zation of teacher training in this field. Such a study will build a 
permanent structure which may provide for better convalescence and 
better vocational opportunities for all the handicapped. It was 
stated in the minutes of the first two meetings of the committee for 
reeducation of war cripples held in Paris in July, 1917, that— 

the institutions would not cease to exist with the conclusion of peace, but would 
then take up all questions relating to victims of accidents at work. 

Prof. Jules Amar has said: 

The war will be over, but the industrial work and the necessity for the 
scientific study and physical organization of it will be with us forever. 

There will always be the need for rehabilitation of the damaged 
human material discarded from the industrial world. 

The economic and social problems which are crystalizing in the 
present emergency, as T. B. Kidner has pointed out— 

are only made more apparent through their being forcibly brought to our atten¬ 
tion by the urgency of the disabled soldier problem if, for instance, any doubts 
exist as to the necessity for a broad and generous scheme of industrial train¬ 
ing for the nation, the contrast in the outlook for the future between the disabled 
men who have been trained thoroughly in technical lines before enlistment 
and those whose only commodity was unskilled labor should remove them. 
On the one hand confidence and calm serenity, on the other, fear and dread of 
the future. We are already hearing of preparedness for the “ war after the 
war.” 

Occupational therapy touches all those vital problems and must 
be utilized in the future, not only in healing and alleviating more 
extensively those whom it now touches, but in reaching all classes. 
For those in need of economic adjustment and training, occupational 
therapy may afford in convalescence the one great opportunity. 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. G9 


VALUE OF THE HANDICAPPED. 

If tlie war should finally end in economic exhaustion, that nation 
may ultimately triumph which is best able to use over again her 
men. It is claimed that Germany uses 85 to 90 per cent of her dis¬ 
abled back of the lines, and that the majority of the remaining 10 
to 15 per cent are entirely self-supporting. Belgium, whose deple¬ 
tion has been the greatest, was the first nation successfully to use 
over again her men. Not only has the large Belgian reeducation 
center of Port Yillez been self-supporting, but in addition it has 
paid back to the Belgian Government the entire capital cost of in¬ 
stallation. The men in the meantime have not only received 43 
centimes per day, the regular pay of the Belgian soldier, but also 5 
to 20 centimes per hour according to their work. In addition, sur¬ 
plus profits are funded for the men. Belgium before the war was 
one of the most highly trained, countries in Europe. Forty-three 
trades are taught at Port Yillez under the most competent instruc¬ 
tors. A large part of the output, material, equipment, and tools 
made are for the Belgian Army. 1 

Economic necessity has made possible the results achieved in Bel¬ 
gium. For the other nations not so hard pressed the rehabilitation 
of the disabled and the strengthening of the vitality of the civil popu¬ 
lation may be an important and perhaps a determining point in their 
economic future. 

If this problem is handled with good ordinary business judgment, if the 
soldier is treated in a straightforward manly fashion, without sentimentality or 
patriotic hysteria, he will find that his disability will turn out to be really a 
staff instead of a millstone. 3 

To what extent this Nation will be forced to use over again her men 
can not be determined. It is certain, however, that our economic 
future depends to a large extent upon the rehabilitation of those dis¬ 
abled both in war and industry. The services of the men disabled 
at the front are needed back of the lines and in the great task of re¬ 
construction after the war. The channels of immigration are closed, 
and the drain on our own labor market is tremendous. The time has 
passed when the supply of skilled labor was as inexhaustible as our 
natural resources were thought to be. We can no longer afford to 
continue our former wasteful methods and we must conserve every 
vestige of labor as an economic asset. 

LETTERS FROM REHABILITATED SOLDIERS. 

Some of the men have voluntarily written letters to their old teach¬ 
ers, some of which testify to very considerable improvement in the 
man’s wage-earning power. In giving the following details of the 
cases of a few soldiers the names are not mentioned for personal 
reasons. 3 

“As you know, for the past four tveeks I have been at work in the tool room 
of the Dominion Bridge Co., and I just thought I would like to drop you a 
line to express my thanks to the military hospitals commission. 


t Fuse boxes which cost 30 francs apiece manufactured in the United Stntes are made 
by Belgian cripples for 10 francs apiece, and give a profit of 2J francs, or 25 per cent, 
to the establishment. 

21)r. F. II Sexton, address, Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 15, 1917. 
a Military Hospitals Commission Report, May, 1917. 





70 TRAININ'G OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 


“ When I came back from the front in October, 1916, I was not able to read 
or write * * *. 

“ When the M. H. C. opened the machine shop at McGill I decided to take 
lip the course, as I wanted to get a trade for myself. I had never worked on 
machines before, so I had a lot to learn, but I stuck with it, and when I 
got my discharge three months later I was able to secure my job with the 
Dominion Bridge Co. I received $21.10 per week since I started. The fore¬ 
man told me tliis week that he was going to put me on a new machine and 
this would mean more money for me. I expect to get about $30 per week. 

“ If it had not been for the school I never would have been in the place I 
am to-day. Before the war, I was driving a team at $15 per week. I had also 
worked on a pile driver at $18 per week, so you see I am now able to earn 
almost twice as much as I could before. I hope all the returned boys will 
see the chances they have in the school and make the most of them.” 

No. 61013, Pvt. -, Twenty-second Battalion: 

“ I was discharged yesterday. So, to my regret, I will no longer be able to 
attend your class. 

“ But, on the occasion, I wish to express my satisfaction for the good and 
practical instruction I secured from you, in connection with my trade, through¬ 
out my convalescent period. 

“ Before I enlisted I was an ordinary machinist, and I often realized then 
that I was lacking of some technical information, especially such as is related 
with shop sketching and the reading of blue prints. 

“ Now, I feel that I can go back to work with pride, because I have learned, 
through your instruction, to understand better the importance and advantages 
of my trade, and because I am assured that now I can work myself up rapidly 
and command better salaries and position. 

“ You have, Mr.-, set me on this path and I wish to thank you heartily 

for it. 

“ Yours respectfully and obliged, and will you please send me a letter of 
recommendation of some kind; I will appreciate it.” 

The following letter was written by a man who was an excellent 
machinist, but had never been able to read drawings with any facility. 
After two and a half months’ instruction in mechanical drawing, in 
which the man showed an extraordinary ability, he was discharged. 
He immediately stepped into a position as a foreman, because of his 
new knowledge, at a very satisfactory salary. 

No. 51340, Pvt. -, P. P. C. L. I. : 

“ Despite my 30 years of experience as a mechanic, I can state that, through 
your instruction and assistance, my efficiency and earning power were consider¬ 
ably increased. 

“ The fact is, that at the outbreak of the war, when I enlisted, I was earning 
about $3 a day at my trade. At present, since I am discharged from military 
service, I am, technically, a better man all around; I am able now to hold a 
job as foreman in a machine shop, with more than twice the salary I was 
getting before.” 

No. 24933, Pvt. -, Thirteenth Battalion: 

“ This is to certify that prior to my enlistment for over-seas service I was 
employed with the Duncan Milk Co., of this city, receiving $12 per week as 
driver. I spent nine years on a farm. I always had a liking for drawing and 
felt that if ever I had the chance I would take up a course in mechanical 
drawing. This opportunity was offered me at the Grey Nuns’ Convalescent 
Home, Montreal, where, after six weeks’ constant application to the work, I 
am in a position to accept an appointment with the pensions board at Ottawa, 
with an initial salary of $75 per month.” 

Pvt. W. Rollerson, previously a stenographer, earning $70 a month; took 
a course of stenography and bookkeeping at Convalescent Hospital, Deer Lodge, 
and is now earning $1,000 a year. Employed in the customhouse. 






TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 71 

Pvt. .T. Bicknell was a polisher earning $00 a month. Took five months’ 
course of commercial work and is now earning $87.50 as bookkeeper in the 
ordnance department. 

Pvt. .T. E. Billett was a general laborer previous to enlistment, earning a 
variable wage. He took a six months’ course in woodwooking room at Deer 
Lodge and is now earning an average wage of $70 a month as a wood carver 
at the Alaska Bedding Co. 

Pvt. Wilkie was a blacksmith’s helper before enlistment. He took a short 
course in the blacksmithing and oxyacetylene-welding class at the Kelvin 
School and is now employed by the Winnipeg school board as a blacksmith and 
oxyacetylene welder, at a salary of $90 a month. 

No. 22921, Sergt.-, Twelfth Battalion: 

“ It is indeed gratifying for us (returned soldiers) to know that there is such 
a place as the vocational-training school, to which we can go on our return 
to Canada. 

“ I had the pleasure of being there for two months, studying shorthand and 
typewriting, and then, through your recommendation, I was able to get a very 
good position as visitor in the Mootreal district office of the board of pension 
commissioners for Canada.” 

The following letters express the points of view of three grateful 
Englishmen and one Irishman . 1 

Dear Boys : I joined up on August 30, 1914, in the BoyaNEngineors and was 
wounded at Loos by a ritle bullet in the head, leaving my right arm paralyzed 
and at times severe pains in the head. I must say this made me very despond¬ 
ent and downhearted, and I did not look forward very hopefully to the future 
on my discharge from hospital. I believe I was one of the first boys to start a 
course of training for disabled soldiers. I must say that the careful instruc¬ 
tion which we boys received greatly bucked and encouraged us for the future. 
I started work for the New System Telephone Co. under the chief engineer, who 
has greatly interested himself in me and other wounded soldiers to be tele¬ 
phone engineers. The work is of an interesting nature. I was a butcher before 
joining up, but having trained on for this pew work I can now look forward to 
the future with a light and glad heart. I can only say to all the boys who may 
read this don’t be downhearted. I was once, but not now. So cheer up, boys. 

Believe me, yours, sincerely, 

A. Clay. 


Sir : I left school at the age of 14 and then worked at a cement factory ns a 
laborer. After serving six years and reaching the position of a leading cook I 
was blown up in the North Sea by the enemy on board H. M. S. Lightning , a 
destroyer, in which I was dangerously wounded and lost my right leg. I used 
to worry when I thought how I could earn my living the rest of my life, but 
after I heard there was a chance to learn a trade I cheered myself up and went 
in for handsewn bootmaking. I am sure there are good prospects in life once it 
is learned. 

I have now finished my training of a year and am going into a job in the 
West End of London. I have been trained free at the Cordwainers’ Technical 
College, where we had good teachers and are well cared for. I was pleased 
when I got my first 9s. 9d. for the pair of ladies’ shoes I made. I can make all 
sorts, so I shall be able to take work all the year around. 

Yours, respectfully, 

Charles W. Wooding. 


We went out to the Mediterranean and then to Gallipoli, where I was badly 
wounded and lost my right, leg (very high amputation). My previous occupa¬ 
tion having been that of a gardener, I began to wonder what I should do. I 
then joined a special course of electrical work whilst in hospital and went to a 
training center after leaving and got on so well that I got a good job at the 
C V V Magneto Works, where I am doing very well; the work I have to do 
suits me as I can sit down at it. I would advise everyone who can not go back 


1 Recalled to Life, No. 1. 





72 [TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 

« 

to their old jobs to learn a trade. I am earning more now than I did before I 
joined up, apart altogether from my pension. 

Ch. E. Janes. 

I was in the merchant service before the war, but joining the Irish Guards 
March, 1915, went out to France, took part in the fighting at Loos, and -was 
wounded at Ypres. I got a shell wound in the shoulder which has rendered my 
right arm nearly useless. I took advantage of the offer of being trained as an 
electrician storekeeper, and after three months’ training have obtained a good 
situation, and the work is quite easy for me notwithstanding my disablement, 
which prevented me following my former occupation. 

F. Power, 

Late Irish Guards. 

SUGGESTED REGISTRATION AND RECORD BLANKS FOR CHARTING PROGRESS 

OF PATIENTS. 

The following blanks are suggested for charting the necessary data 
of each patient from his entrance in the hospital until his discharge 
and placement in industry, vocational school, or institution 

Hospital registration, Form 1, provides the patient’s name, rank, 
and home address. It shows the handicap with which he enters the 
hospital, his previous education and training, his former occupation, 
income, and the possible future occupation he will be able to follow, 
with suggestions for vocational training or improvement. The social 
information will be of value in placing the men, and the opportunity 
for communicating with persons interested in the patient’s welfare is 
provided. 

The curative shop weekly record, Form 2, indicates the patient’s 
changing physical and mental conditions, with physician’s instruc¬ 
tions and recommendations of the vocational expert. The observa¬ 
tions of the instructor, which show the patient’s methods of work, the 
quantity and quality of his output, will be of value in placing. 

Hospital discharge, Form 3, is printed on the reverse of Form 1, 
hospital registration, which has already recorded such social history 
of the man as is desirable. Provision is made on Form 3 for showing 
changes in handicap, education, and vocational training since conva¬ 
lescence in the curative workshop. The patient’s placement, whether 
in industry, vocational school, or institution, is recorded, as well as* 
the persons communicated with and responsible for his follow work. 

The vocational school weekly record, Form 4, shows the student’s 
progress in vocational education and his qualifications for employ¬ 
ment. 


HOSPITAL REGISTRATION. 


TRAINING OF TEACHERS FOR OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY. 73 


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Return to 

Library of Congress 
Oiv. of Docs _ 


BULLETIN No. 7 


Emergency War Training 

For Motor-Truck Drivers and Chauffeurs 


H. S. 


ISSUED BY THE 

FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
WASHINGTON 


FEBRUARY, 1918 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1918 







L C /o*fs 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


MEMBERS. 


David F. Houston, Chairman , 

Secretary of Agriculture. 
William C. Redfield, 

Secretary of Commerce. 
William B. Wilson, 

Secretary of Labor. 

P. P. Claxton, 

Commissioner of Education. 


James P. Munroe, 

Manufacture and Commerce. 
Charles A. Greathouse, 

Agriculture. 

Arthur E. Holder, 

Labor. 


executive staff. 

C. A. Prosser, Director. 


Layton S. Hawkins, 

Assistant Director for 

Agricultural Education. 
Lewis H. Carris, 

Assistant Director for 

Industrial Education. 

F. G. Nichols, 

Assistant Director for 

Com mercial Education. 


Josephine T. Berry, 

Assistant Director for Home 
Economics Education. 
Charles H. Winslow, 

Assistant Director for Research. 


All communications should be addressed to 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. 

( 2 ) 

o. of B« 

APR 1 1918 




CONTENTS. 







Foreword. 

General purpose. 

Qualifications for admission to classes. 

Duration of course. 

Qualifications of instructors.. 

Place of instruction. 

Equipment. 

Use of pamphlets, diagrams, and charts. 

Bibliography. 

Plan for conducting class.. 

Program of course.. 

Unit A-l. Classroom instruction. 

Unit A-2. Shopwork. 

Systematic lubrication and care. 

Preparation of the truck or car for the road. 

Test of alignment of wheels. 

Test of play in front wheel bearing and steering knuckle pins and bushings 

and of trueness of front wheels. 

Test of play in steering mechanism. 

Care and inspection of springs—Effects of abuse. 

Care and inspection of universal joints and propeller shaft—Effects of 

abuse. 

Inspection and adjustment of brakes. 

Cylinders. 

Piston and rings. 

Fitting bearings... 

Bearing fitting. 

Valves and valve mechanism. 

Testing compression. 

Valve grinding. 

Carbon removal. 

Valve setting. 

Importance of lubrication. 

Filling gauge or depth indicators. 

Methods of supplying oil to moving parts. 

Demonstration of splash oiling. 

Dash gauges or circulation indicators. 

Periodic draining and flushing. 

Symptoms which may warn the driver. 

Failure of circulation. 

Winter troubles and care. 

Care of cooling system- 1 . 

Protection against frost. 

Temporary repair of radiator. 

( auses of boiling. 

Packing the water pump. 

Storage battery care. 


Page. 

5 

7 

7 

7 

8 
8 
8 
9 
9 
9 

11 

12 

18 

18 

20 

21 

22 

22 

24 


24 

25 

26 
27 
27 


28 

28 

29 

30 

30 

31 

32 
32 

32 

33 
33 

33 

34 
34 

34 

35 

36 

37 

37 

38 
38 


(3) 
















































4 


Unit A-2. Shopwork—Continued. Page. 

Causes of failure of engine to start. 39 

Practice in location of ignition troubles and a study of various parts of Ford 

ignition system. 40 

Test source of current. 40 

Test ignition coil. 40 

Test for spark at the end of the wire detached from the plug. 41 

Test primer. 41 

Inspect plugs and space gap. 41 

Make sure of fuel. 42 

Demonstrate and insist upon safe cranking. 42 

High tension magneto. 43 

Battery ignition system... __. 44 

Trouble location. 44 

Engine trouble which can be caused by the instructor. 45 

Unit A-3. Driving. 47 

Preliminary instructions. 48 

To start the engine. 48 

To start car. 49 

To stop car. 49 

To change from first to second. 49 

To change from fourth to third, from third to second, or from second to 

first. 49 

Alternate method of shifting to lower speed. 50 

Driving instructions. 50 

Material and equipment for instruction for a unit of 24 men. 52 

Test questions. 55 

Publications of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. 75 



























FOREWORD. 


As lias already been shown in previous bulletins of the Federal 
Board for Vocational Education, there is a critical and constantly 
growing need for many thousands of mechanics and technicians for 
Army occupations carried on in and behind the lines of the United 
States Army. Many of these workers, already experienced in similar 
occupations of civil life, will be secured through the draft and 
possibly through voluntary enlistment. It is recognized by those 
in a position to know that the quota thus gained will not be sufficient 
and that it will be necessary to train many thousands of men in 
various ways for various occupations. The War Department has 
taken definite steps to provide for this training systematically 
through Army schools, in some instances at cantonments, but largely 
at the industrial, trade, and engineering schools of the country. 

For some months the Federal board has been making intensive 
investigations and studies of the demands of these Army occupa¬ 
tions. A series of bulletins for the guidance of those giving this 
training has resulted from these studies. The courses and methods 
suggested in these bulletins have been carefully checked by experi¬ 
enced Army officers and represent the concensus of opinion as to 
what training should be given and how it should be given. 

A list of all the bulletins thus far published and in progress of 
publication is given on page 75 of this bulletin, those dealing with 
the war-emergency training of conscripted and enlisted men being 
starred. Persons desiring to secure copies of any or all of these 
bulletins can readily do so by applying to the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education, Ouray Building, 805 G Street NW., Wash¬ 
ington, D. C. 

This bulletin is the third in the series, being preceded by bulletin 
No. 2, on Radio and Buzzer Operators, and bulletin No. 4, on Me¬ 
chanical and Technical Training for Conscripted Men in the Air 
Division of the United States Signal Corps. Both of the above 
bulletins were issued to meet the need for trained men of the United 
States Signal Corps, and they might be called “Army service bulle¬ 
tins,” as contrasted with “ occupational bulletins.” The other bulle¬ 
tins in this series were written to meet the need of training men for 
an occupation or occupations within any or all of the different 
branches of the service. 


(5) 


6 


The first two bulletins dealt entirely with the need of trained men 
for specific occupations in the Signal Corps. Now that the needs 
of the other branches of the service have been charted and the work 
of training is being put on a definite and systematic basis, it will 
be"possible to establish training schemes to fit'men for an occupation 
in a number of different branches of the service, leaving to the 
War Department the task of distributing these men after they have 
been trained. In this way the specific needs and requests of the 
different branches of the Army for the same kind of trained men 
will be equitably met. It is expected that the courses and methods 
suggested in these bulletins will form the basis of practically all 
the training given under Army auspices for practically all of the 
occupations dealt with in the bulletins. 

The purpose of the courses outlined in this and other bulletins can 
not be emphasized too strongly. They are war-emergency courses 
in the fullest meaning of the term. They are not trade courses in 
the sense that they attempt in any measure to prepare men for rec¬ 
ognized trades and occupations as carried on in civil life. They are 
short, brief, direct courses of instruction designed to fit men in a 
great emergency to meet the specific demands of processes and opera¬ 
tions carried on by an army under war conditions which in some 
cases approximate—but in most cases differ widely from—the de¬ 
mands and requirements of similar work in civilian occupations. 

Men taking this kind of training should not be led to believe that 
they are learning a trade. They are serving their country by learn¬ 
ing to do a special job well, though to some extent this training may 
be beneficial to them in after life. 

These courses were prepared by R. A. Leavell, K. G. Smith, and 
J. H. Gill, special agents of the Federal Board for Vocational Educa¬ 
tion, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, assistant director 
for research. 

Acknowledgment for valuable suggestions is made to Army officers 
in the Signal Corps, the Quartermaster Corps, the Engineer Corps, 
the Coast Artillery Corps, and the Ordnance Department; to the 
members of the Committee on Classification, Division of Tests, Adju¬ 
tant General’s Office, and to specialists in charge of the mechanical 
repair shops of the Army. 


C. A. Prosser, Director. 


EMERGENCY WAR TRAINING FOR MOTOR-TRUCK DRIVERS 
AND CHAUFFEURS. 


GENERAL PURPOSE. 

This bulletin presents outlines and suggestions for a course de¬ 
signed to qualify a man as a skilled chauffeur or motor-truck driver. 
The course does not aim to make a man who has not had previous 
repair-shop experience an expert repair man. It is designed to teach 
him not merely to run a car ” but, what is more important, to keep 
a car running; in other words, to know exactly what care and at¬ 
tention is required and how to handle a car on the road so as to 
obtain the maximum of service with the minimum of attention by 
the mechanic or repair man. This course aims to enable those tak¬ 
ing it quickly to determine the cause of engine failure and to make 
simple roadside repairs and adjustments. 

QUALIFICATIONS FOR ADMISSION TO CLASSES. 

As far as possible the men enrolled should have had at least a 
small amount of experience either in operating or repairing auto¬ 
mobiles, motorcycles, motor boats, or gasoline engines; or some 
other training which will enable them to learn readily the principles 
of motor vehicle care and operation. As the purpose is to develop 
drivers who know how to give a car the proper care and to use judg¬ 
ment in driving, it is plain that men who clearly have not the neces¬ 
sary qualifications should not be admitted, and that those who, in 
the opinion of the instructor, can not hope to become proficient should 
be dropped. 

DURATION OF COURSE. 

This outline presents a course of intensive training designed to be 
given in day classes during a period of four weeks of five and one- 
half days per week and eight hours per day. Under emergency con¬ 
ditions it may be condensed by the instructor into a period of two 
weeks. If the work is to be given in evening classes they should 
be conducted four evenings per week and each evening should be 
divided between classroom instruction and shop work. 

( 7 ) 



8 


QUALIFICATIONS OF INSTRUCTORS. 

The instructor or instructors in charge of this work should have 
had considerable practical experience in repair and service work. It 
may be possible and even desirable to select assistant instructors 
from among the men. Unfortunately most men who have had the 
necessary practical experience have never developed the ability to 
impart their information to others, especially when the others are 
in fairly large groups. It is suggested that men who are to conduct 
this course will find it advisable to spend considerable time study¬ 
ing some of the trade pamphlets and text books, to find methods of 
explanation which can be understood clearly and readily by those 
less familiar with the subject. The instructor must carefully guard 
against using terms which are too technical without explaining them 
in terms easily understood. 

PLACE OF INSTRUCTION. 

Excellent facilities for conducting such classes can generally be 
found in connection with technical schools of either college or high- 
school grade. Often a high school or auto trade schools can secure 
assistance from one or more garages or repair shops in planning such 
a course. The classroom may be in a garage, provided the class will 
not be subject to frequent interruptions. If not actually in a garage 
it should be close enough to a garage or repair shop to permit the 
students to inspect many of the parts explained to them. This is 
necessary because a man can learn much more easily from seeing and 
handling parts than from examining illustrations in a book and 
looking at crude diagrams on the blackboard. 

EQUIPMENT. 

On page 52 is a list of the equipment which is necessary for giving 
instruction both in the shop and on the road. The equipment is to 
be used not in an effort to make repair men out of the men but to 
make them familiar with the construction of various parts of the 
machine and more especially to impress upon them the effects of 
neglect and abuse and the importance of regular systematic lubrica¬ 
tion and care. 

When facilities are limited and small groups are to be handled, 
part of the necessary equipment can be secured from a distributor or 
dealer. Some parts can be removed from cars or trucks for inspec¬ 
tion and replaced and others can be examined and explained wdiile 
in place with the aid of a manufacturer’s illustrated parts lists and 
instruction books. Generally it is possible at very low cost to secure 
a great deal of very useful equipment from an automobile wrecking 
plant or junk yard. It should not be difficult to find parts which have 


9 


become very badly cut or worn and which will serve admirably to 
illustrate effects of neglected lubrication or of abuse. 

The trucks and passenger-carrying cars necessary for road instruc¬ 
tion and for practice in systematic lubrication and care can generally 
be secured with demonstrators or drivers from dealers or business 
concerns. 

USE OF PAMPHLETS, DIAGRAMS, AND CHARTS. 

In most cases the instructor can hold the attention of a fairly large 
group of men by making use of a few large simple diagrams and 
drawings quickly sketched on the blackboard before the class, much 
better than he can by confining himself to the distribution of dia¬ 
grams and printed matter or the display of such charts as he may 
have prepared beforehand. 

Many diagrams and illustrations, taken from lists of parts or 
instruction books, mounted on suitable cards and given a coating of 
white shellac varnish, will be found very useful when the men are 
in small groups as in their shopwork. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

A bibliography of suitable textbooks and pamphlets suggested for 
each course has been prepared by the Research Division and may be 
obtained by addressing the Federal Board for Vocational Educa¬ 
tion, Ouray Building, 805 G Street, Washington, D. C. 

PLAN FOR CONDUCTING CLASS. 

The course outlined has been divided into three units, as follows: 

Unit A-l. Classroom instruction .—A series of talks and explana¬ 
tions given in a classroom. 

Unit A-2. Shopwork .—The men are taught by actual practice how 
to care for a truck and car and to make minor adjustments; the im¬ 
portance of proper, regular lubrication and care is emphasized. 

Unit A-3. Driving instruction and practice in the location of 
trouble .—The men drive cars and trucks in order to develop ability 
to control them under all conditions; they are taught to run down 
and locate trouble and to make necessary adjustments and roadside 
repairs. 

For the classroom instruction, the men meet in a single group 
under one instructor. 

For shopwork they must be subdivided and no instructor should 
be in charge of more than 12 men. 

In road instruction and trouble hunting not more than six men can 
be handled effectively by one instructor. 

The classroom, shop, and road instruction is to be carried on by a 
regularly organized staff consisting of one chief instructor and the 
necessary number of shop and road instructors. Among the students 


10 


there will undoubtedly be some who have had experience in motor¬ 
car work. As soon as these men have demonstrated their ability, 
they can serve as assistant shop and road instructors and at the same 
time continue their course. However, in case no men of the requisite 
ability and experience are found the entire burden of instruction will 
fall on the regular staff. 

To establish the most efficient scheme of instruction and to secure 
the most effective use of equipment, it is absolutely essential that men » 
be detailed to the institution in groups every two weeks. The most 
experienced men will make such rapid progress in driving that they 
will be available to serve as assistant instructors in the shop or on 
the road. 

On page 11 is a chart showing the division of time for the work. 
The following points are to be noted: Just before the close of each 
classroom period a short time (10 to 15 minutes) is to be allowed for 
the students to ask questions. At the close of the hour each man 
reports to the shop instructor to whose group he has been assigned. 

About 30 minutes is to be devoted by each shop instructor to 
questioning the men, first on the subject covered in the classroom 
work of the previous period, and then on the more important points 
which have been covered during the previous periods, both in class¬ 
room and in shop. Each man should be provided with a set of 
mimeographed questions, such as are given on pages — to — and 
should be advised to make use of them in order to find out his weak 
points and as a guide in seeking further explanation and help from 
his instructors. 

The first part of each Saturday morning is to be devoted to a writ¬ 
ten quiz. The men should be instructed to write on one side of the 
paper only, to number each answer to correspond to the question, to 
leave blank lines between the answers to different questions, to sign 
and date each sheet, etc. The purpose of the quiz is not primarily 
to discover the ability of the individual students but to dispel such 
fear as they may have of written examinations in order that they 
may make a better showing if called upon to write answers to ques¬ 
tions in examinations at a cantonment. 

In giving the classroom instruction the chief instructor should at 
all times guard against making the work seem theoretical. The men 
should be made to see as they listen to the talks that the information 
given will help them to secure better service from the trucks or cars 
they may be called upon to operate. If the theory will not help them 
they should not be burdened with it. For example, men who can 
drive well and give their machines intelligent care need not know 
all about the theory underlying the operation of ignition systems. 
They should be able to find what is the trouble when the ignition 
system fails and, if the remedy is simple, to get going again. 


11 


PROGRAM OF COURSE. 


Day. 

8-9 a. m. 

9-9.30 a. m. 

9.30a.m.-12m. 

1-2 p. m. 

2-2.30 p. m. 

2.30-5 p. m. 

Monday. 

Class-room 

Quiz under 

Shop work.. 

Class-room 

Quiz under 

Shop work. 

Tuesday. 

instruc¬ 

tion. 

.do. 

shop in¬ 
structor. 
.do. 

.do. 

instruc¬ 

tion. 

.do. 

shop in¬ 
structor. 
.do. 

Do. 

Wednesday. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 


.do. 

Do. 

Thursday. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

Do. 

Fridav. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

Do. 

Saturday. 

Review and e 

xamination .. 

Special con¬ 
ferences. 


Half holiday. 


The program for the second week is the same as that for the first. 

The third and fourth weeks are to be used for driving instruction, trouble 
hunting, and for finishing any work of the first two weeks left incomplete. 

Some flexibility is required, as provision may have to be made for daily 
military drill. 







































UNIT A-l. CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 

I. 


1. General explanation of purpose and scope of course, with suggestion con¬ 

cerning best methods to pursue to secure the greatest benefit. 

2. Frames. 

A. Types and material. 

a. Trucks. 

b. Cars. 

B. Methods of joining parts. 

C. Methods of securing engine, gear box, etc. 

D. Inspection for defect or impending failure. 

3. Springs. 


A. Types for: 

a. Trucks. 

b. Cars. 

B. Causes of breakage, use of rubber bumpers and check straps. 

C. Care (lubricate eyes and leaves, keep clips tight). 

4. Wheels. 

A. Advantage and disadvantages of wood, wire, pressed, disc, and 
cast, for 

a. Trucks. 

b. Cars. 

5. Wheel and other antifriction bearings. 

A. Display and explanation of advantages and disadvantages for par¬ 

ticular kinds of service of 
Cone and cup. 

Radial (regrinding possible). 

a. Ball Thrust. 

Double row. 

.Self aligning. 

Solid straight. 

Hyatt flexible (Ford). 

b. Roller Hyatt heavy duty. 

Tapered (Timken). 

Flanged straight. 

B. Bearing care and adjustment. 


6. Front axle. 

A. Explanation of types. 

B. Alignment of wheels. 

a. Camber. 

b. Gather. 

c. Castor effect. 

C. Test for alignment and wear. 

D. Lubrication, care, and adjustment. 


( 12 ) 






13 


7. Tires. 

A. Solid. 

a. Method of securing (pressed or bolted). 

b. Types (single or dual). 

B. Pneumatic. 

a. Clincher. 

b. Detachable (Q. D. clincher or straight side). 

C. Care and abuse. 

D. Emergency repairs. 

8. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered. 

II. 

1. Verbal quiz and review. 

2. Steering gears. 

A. Types. 

B. Test and adjustment. 

C. Lubrication and care. 

3. Differential. 

A. Purpose. 

B. Construction. 

a. Equalizing type. 

b. Nonstalling types (overrunning or locking). 

C. Types of rear axles used on trucks and cars. 

a. Dead. 

b. Divided live (Ford). 

c. Semifloating. 

d. Three-quarter floating. 

e. Full floating 

/. Internal drive. 
g. Front-wheel drive. 

D. Provision for torque and thrust. 

E. Inspection of mechanical condition. 

F. Care and lubrication of— 

a. Bevel drive. 

b. Worm drive. 

c. Internal drive. 

d. Chain drive. 

4. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered. 

III. 

1. Verbal quiz and review. 

2. Review of important points concerning construction and proper care of rear 

axles. 

3. Brakes. 

A. Types. 

B. Location. 

C. Cooling. 

D. Adjustment for wear. 

E. Precautions concerning use. 

F. Use of the engine as a brake (position of ignition switch). 

G. Suggestions concerning reliuing and material. 

4. General care and procedure in daily inspection of chassis. 

5. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered in connection with 

chassis. 


14 


IV. 

1. Verbal quiz and review. 

2. The engine. 

A. Cycle of operation and general theory of heat engine. 

B. Reasons for and advantages and disadvantages of multiple cylinders. 

3. Engine parts. 

A. Cylinders (and cylinder types). 

B. Pistons and piston rings (compression leaks). 

C. Connecting rods and bearings. 

D. Crank shaft. 

E. Vibration (balance of parts and counter balancing). 

4. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered. 

V. 

1. Verbal quiz and review. 

2. Engine parts continued. 

A. Valves. 

B. Valve timing. 

C. Valve grinding. 

D. Adjustment of valve-operating mechanism. 

E. Properties and characteristics of special valve steels. 

F. Advantages and disadvantages of valve-in-head and L-head con¬ 

struction. 

G. Effect of wear and of loose valve springs. 

3. Fuel. 

A. Properties and behavior, under certain, conditions, of commercial 
. grades of gasoline (petrol). 

B. Methods of gasoline production. 

C. Properties of gasoline substitutes. 

D. Behavior of fuel-and-air mixture in the inlet manifold under dif¬ 

ferent conditions met with during operation. 

4. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered. 

VI. 

1. Verbal quiz and review. 

2. Fuel-supply system for trucks and cars. 

A. Gravity feed. 

B. Pressure feed. 

C. Vacuum feed. 

3. Study of carbureter construction and methods of compensation to secure 

uniform mixture. 

A. Air-valve type. 

B. Plain-tube type (gravity fed well—Zenith). 

C. Plain-tube type (air-bled nozzle compensation). 

4. Lubrication. 

A. Function of a lubricant. 

B. Properties and quality of lubricants. 

C. Lubricating systems. 

a. Splash. 

b. Forced feed. 

c. Combined splash and forced feed. 

d. Draining lower crank case or oil well. 


15 


4. Lubrication—Continued. 

D. Causes of imperfect lubrication. 

a. Fine metal dust in suspension in oil in new engine; need for 

breaking new engine in gently, and reasons. 

b. Thinning down of tin* oil due to kerosene or the other less 

volatile parts of the gasoline. 

c. Obstruction of circulation due to ice or sediment. 

d. Air-bound pump. 

E. Cold weather lubrication. \ v 

5. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered. 


VII. 


1. Verbal quiz and review. 

2. Cooling systems. 

A. Thermosyphon. 

B. Forced circulation. 

C. Importance of maintaining a reasonably high radiator temperature. 

a. Thermostatic control of water circulation. 

b. Control of air circulation through radiator by shutters or 

by covering lower portion with pasteboard. 

D. Types of radiators for trucks and for cars. 

a. Importance of clean water. 

b. Protection against frost by— 

1. Alcohol or glycerin. 

2. Calcium chloride. 

3. Kerosene (paraffin oil). 

E. Temporary repairs of radiator in field. 

F. Care and packing of the water pump. 

3. Simple principles of electricity and magnetism which underlie the operation 

of battery and magneto ignition systems. 

A. The production of an electromagnet by the use of a soft-iron bar 
(or bundle of soft-iron wires), a winding of insulated copper wire, 
and a battery or other source of direct current. 

I>. The production of electricity by the movement of a permanent 
horseshoe magnet up to and away from a soft-iron core about 
which is wound a coil of insulated copper wire. 

C. Explanation of the construction of the Ford magneto. 

I). Explanation of the principles of induction illustrated by a bar car¬ 
rying two coils of wire, one coil, the primary, connected through 
a switch to a battery; the other coil, the secondary, connected 
to the terminals of a minature lamp bulb so that the magnetizing 
and demagnetizing action on the iron, produced by the opening 
* and closing of the switch, will cause an induced current in the 

secondary winding as shown by the flickering in the lamp bulb. 

E. The simple primary and secondary circuits of a jump-spark ignition 
system for single-cylinder engine. 
a. Primary circuit: 

1. Battery to switch. 

2. Switch to one primary terminal of coil. 

3. From other primary terminal of coil to circuit breaker 

(sometimes called timer, interrupter, or commutator). 

4. From circuit breaker through ground (or through wire) 

back to other terminal of battery, the place where 
the current originated. 




16 


3. Simple principles of electricity and magnetism, etc.—Continued. 

E. The simple primary and secondary circuits of a jump-spark ignition 
system for single-cylinder engine—Continued. 

b . Secondary circuit: 

1. From secondary terminal of spark coil through heavily 

insulated wire to center of electrode of spark plug. 

2. Across gap in spark plug (set to 1/32 or even 1/40 inch) 

to outer shell of plug which is grounded. 

3. Through ground and through primary circuit to place 

where one end of secondary winding is grounded on 
primary winding inside of coil unit (or through spe¬ 
cial secondary ground wire or systems where the 
primary circuit is ungrounded) the secondary current 
has originated in and returned to the secondary 
winding. 

4. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered. 

VIII. 

1. Verbal quiz and review. 

2. Study of Ford ignition system. 

3. Study of modern battery ignition system. 

a. Primary circuit. 

b. Secondary circuit. 

c. Care and adjustment of circuit breaker points. 

d. Open and closed circuit types. 

e. Methods of testing and of identifying causes of failure. 

4. Theory of spark advance. 

a. Set spark. 

b. Hand advance. 

c. Automatic advance. 

d. Combined hand and automatic advance. 

5. Rules for setting and wiring up a battery ignition system. 

a. Turn engine by hand until No. 1 cylinder has just completed com¬ 

pression stroke. 

b. Turn ignition distributor (or magneto) drive shaft until breaker 

points are just ready to separate, with advance mechanism set 
in retarded position and with distributor arm in line with dis¬ 
tributor terminal which is to be wired to No. 1 cylinder. 

c. Wire the other distributor terminals in the order that the arm will 

connect with them; to the spark plugs in the other cylinders in the 
order in which the engine is designed to fire. 

6. Brief discussion of storage batteries and storage-battery care. 

7. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered. 

IX. 

1. Verbal quiz and review. 

2. Low tension magneto ignition. 

A. Explanation of magneto magnets, pole pieces, and armature with 

diagram of magnetic circuit for different position of armature. 

B. Magneto circuits. 

a. Primary. 

b. Secondary. 

c. Auxiliary battery connections. 

C. Disadvantages of low-tension magneto ignition. 


W CO 


17 


3. High-tension magneto Ignition. 

A. Construction of the armature. 

(t. Primary circuit and condenser. 

b. Secondary circuit. 

1. Secondary winding to collector ring. 

2. Collector ring through brush past safety gap to dis¬ 

tributor. 

3. Distributor to spark plugs. 

4. Spark plugs through ground and back to grounded 

end of secondary winding. 

B. Rules for setting and wiring high-tension magneto. 

C. Care of high-tension magneto. 

D. Method of testing high-tension magneto. 

4. Systematic location of engine trouble. 

A. Test compression. 

B. Prime cylinders. 

C. Test spark. 

I). Make sure that mixture is not too rich (engine loaded). 

E. Make sure that valves open and close at right time and that spark 

occurs at right time. 

F. Make sure that fuel can be ignited readily in open air. 

G. Make sure that spark plug insulation and secondary wires are not 

damp. 

H. (In extremely cold weather drivers sometimes make a practice of 

priming a motor with airplane gasoline or with ether or of ad¬ 
mitting acetylene gas with air into the air intake of a carburetor 
to facilitate starting.) 

5. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered. 


X. 


1. Verbal quiz and review. 

2. Transmission system. 

A. Clutch. 

a. Cone (care and adjustment of cone clutch and remedy of 

trouble). 

b. Plate type (care and adjustment and remedy of trouble). 

c. Multiple disk type (care and adjustment and remedy of 

troubles). 

d. Purpose of a clutch brake. 

B. The gear box (explanation with diagrams of construction and of 

method of securing the different gear ratios). 

C. Proper methods of handling spark, throttle (or accelerator pedal), 

clutch, gear shift, and other controls. 

a. When starting out and shifting from lower to higher gears. 

b. When shifting from higher to lower gears, as in climbing a 

hill (keep throttle open and release clutch only half way 
or use double pedal motion). 

3. Statement of the series of individual operations to be performed when the 

engine is to be cranked and the car gotten into motion. 

4. Study of preliminary instructions applying to methods of operating vehicles 

on road (p. 48). 

. Careful study of motor trouble chart and of automobile trouble chart. 

. Verbal synopsis of important points to be remembered. 

43217°—18-2 




18 


UNIT A-2. SHOPWORK. 

The instructor or instructors in the shop should keep in mind the necessity of 
making every possible effort to drive home to the men the importance of regular 
systematic intelligent care and lubrication and the seriousness and certainty of 
the results of neglect and abuse. 

I. 

Subject: 

Practice in giving systematic lubrication and care, and preparation of 
truck or car for the road. 

Material and equipment for instruction: 

1. Typical heavy truck (or complete chassis). 

2. Typical touring or passenger carrying car (or complete chassis). 

(Should have sliding gearset.) 

3. Several copies of manufacturer’s instruction book and of illustrated 

parts list (if such lists are independent of instruction book and are 

to be secured) for truck. See 1. 

4. Same as 3, but for car 2. 

5. Several lubrication charts mounted on cards (if possible, varnished or 

shellacked) to apply to truck 1. 

6. Same as 5, but for car 2. 

7. The necessary oil, oil cans, grease, grease gun, waste, and tools. 

Systematic Lubrication and Care. 

Explain to the men with as much emphasis as possible the fol¬ 
lowing: 

A truck or car will not give good service unless it is properly oiled 
and greased. Lubrication is more important than anything else if 
a machine is to be kept in good order. 

Important parts will give good service as long as the truck lasts 
if they are kept at all times properly lubricated. You can com¬ 
pletely ruin many of the parts, such as universal joints, by running 
them dry for a few hours. 

Show the men the various places on the running gear which require 
oiling or greasing. Explain how often each place should be oiled 
or greased. Drive home the fact that whenever one metal part 
turns or slides against another it should be lubricated. 

Tell them that when parts are removed the truckmaster or the 
repair man can tell by examining them whether they have been oiled 
regularly or have been neglected. 

No matter how excellent the materials, or how fine the work¬ 
manship, or how costly the machine, many parts will be destroyed 
in a short time if not kept well oiled or greased. 

Show the men that when a grease cup has been filled and screwed 
down there is grease in the bearing when it can be seen forced out 
around the end or from between the surfaces. When it comes out 
it brings with it dust and grit which would cause wear. 


19 


Give the men copies of manufacturers’ instruction books and put 
them to work to find the places which need oiling or greasing and to 
give the attention required. 

The manufacturer’s instruction book has either a chart, in the 
form of a plan of the car, with lines and arrows pointing to the 
various parts, or a page of instructions like the following: 

Engine .—AYhen truck is on a level surface open upper crank case, 
drain valve, and pour good medium oil into breather pipe on left 
side of motor until oil is even with, but not above, level of drain 
valve (or until indicator shows “full”). Oil should be drained and 
case washed out with kerosene every 1,000 miles in summer and 
every 500 miles in winter, and several times during first, 1,000 miles 
while engine is new. 

Magneto .—Oil every 1,000 miles with two or three drops of light 
oil in each oil hole. Only two or three drops; more will cause 
trouble. 

Clutch .—Fill clutch through oil plug at end of 500 miles, and each 
2,000 miles after that. Before filling, drain, fill with kerosene, run 
engine 30 seconds, then drain. Engage and release clutch several 
times while engine runs and kerosene is in clutch case. 

Transmission .—Fill transmission case through filling hole to level 
of plug at side. Each 1,000 miles, add sufficient oil to maintain this 
level. Each 5,000 miles drain through bottom plug, wash out with 
kerosene and refill. 

Rear axle .—Fill rear axle case through cap to level of plug on 
side. Examine and add enough oil to maintain proper level each 
1,000 miles. Each 5,000 miles, drain through plug at bottom, replace 
plug, add kerosene to cleanse, drain and refill. 

(Explain proper qualities of lubricant for transmission and men¬ 
tion advantages of a heavy mineral oil as compared with grease). 

Grease cups, tubes, boots, springs, etc., require attention as follows: 

Each 100 miles— 

Water pump grease cup. 

Spring shackle bolt and spring bolt grease cup. 

Steering rod swivel joint grease cup. 

Fan shaft grease cup. 

Front axle upper and lower bushings. 

Each 200 miles— 

Universal joint grease cups and covers. 

Clutch shaft grease cups. 

Brake band grease cups. 

Steering case grease cups. 

Torsion rod grease cups. 

Each 300 miles— 

Front motor support grease cup. 

Brake lever shaft grease cups. 

Clutch coupling grease cup. 

Hand brake quadrant bracket grease cup. 


20 


Each 1,000 miles— 

Radiator spring barrel grease cups. 

Brake lever shaft grease plugs (use grease gun). 

Rear brake rod end boots. 

Throttle and magneto control segments. 

Each 2,000 miles— 

Front and rear spring leaves (graphite grease). 

Front and rear wheel bearings (grease). 

PREPARATION OF TFIE TRUCK OR CAR FOR TIIE ROAD. 

Tell the men that certain definite precautions should always be 
taken to be sure that a machine is ready for the road. The follow¬ 
ing are suggested: 

1. Fill radiator. Protect in cold weather by covering lower half. 
Cover entirely when engine is not running. 

2. See that the oil in the crank case is up to proper level (up to 
top drain or “full” on indicator). Be sure that the oil is not too 
thin from the effect of the involatile portion of the fuel. 

3. Go over all oil cups or grease cups on steering mechanism, 
knuckles, springs, and wherever else daily attention is required. 

4. Examine steering gear and test brakes to see whether they are 
in good order before starting out. 

5. See that tires are fully inflated and that spares, jack, pump, rim 
or wheel wrench, etc., are in place. Inspect chains and pump. 

6. See that all other tool equipment necessary is in place, includ¬ 
ing spare plugs. 

7. See that there is enough gasoline. An emergency supply of oil 
in one can and gasoline in another is especially desirable. 

8. See that lamps are in working order. 

cl. If electric, try switch. 

b. If acetylene tank, is it charged? 

c. If acetylene generator, has it carbide and water? 

d. Are lamps or acetylene burners in good order and are wires 

or hose connections properly attached to lamps? 

9. When engine has been started, if weather is cold, run slowly 
with no load until oil circulates properly and engine has warmed up. 
See that all cylinders are firing. If the engine does not sound right, 
test for missing cylinder by shorting plugs, by opening priming 
cups, or by detaching plug wires. 

Before touching any part of the carburetor other than the dash 
adjustment or drain valve, be sure of compression, of a good spark, 
and of good plugs in all cylinders. If adjustments seem necessary, 
mark or notice the position of adjusting devices so that they can be 
returned easily to the former position if altering them does not 
improve the running of the engine. 


21 


Have the men go over one or two cars which are ready for the 
road and report any shortages of supplies or equipment. It may not 
be advisable at this time to have them attempt the starting of the 
engine and testing for missing cylinder unless they are carefully 
watched. If there is time for running the engine, it would be well 
to have it start on three cylinders. This can be done by having the 
points in a plug too close together and having the plug oily when 
removed. If one of the men does the cranking, be sure to have him 
stand in such a position that he will not be hurt by the kicking 
back of the engine. 

II. 

Subject: 

Care of front wheels, front axle, steering gear, and steering connections; 
inspection to determine whether they are in good order and in proper 
adjustment; examination of construction of these parts, and effect of 
neglected lubrication. 

Material and equipment for instruction: 

1. One typical heavy truck or complete chassis. 

2. If possible, one truck of the type that is driven on all four wheels, as 

“ Quad ” or F. W. D. 

3. One typical touring or'passenger car (or complete chassis). 

# 4. Manufacturers instruction book and illustrated parts list for truck. 

Same for 2. 

5. Same as 4, but for car 3. 

6. Jacks, small heavy boxes or blocking, tools, such as are commouly fur¬ 

nished with car or truck. 

7. Piece of heavy string and wheel gauge, such as illustrated in Hudson 

Super-Six instruction book. 

8. One wooden wheel complete with hub. 

TEST OF ALIGNMENT OF WHEELS. 

Jack up the front axle until both front wheels clear the ground by 
small and equal distances. Turn the steering gear until the front 
wheels are directed approximately forward. Stretch a string along 
one side of the vehicle at a height just below the hub caps close and 
parallel to the rear wheel. Turn the front wheel one way or the 
other until it lies parallel to the string, but not touching it. Stretch 
the string in the same manner on the opposite side without disturbing 
the position of the front wheels and note the position of the other 
front wheel. The amount of gather or u toe in ” should be somewhere 
between one-fourth and three-eighths of an inch, and never over 
one-half inch. It is well, after this test has been made, to determine 
whether it is possible to gather and spread the front wheels any con¬ 
siderable amount due to play or lost motion in the pin joints in the 
.end of the tie rod. If the front wheels do not have the proper amount 
of gather, the adjustable yoke at the end of the tie rod should be 
turned a few threads to correct. Have the men test the alignment 


22 


of the wheels of any vehicles which are convenient, and allow them 
to adjust the tie rod, replace the pins and bolts, and make sure that 
every cotter pin is in place and properly spread. 

Demonstrate also the method of determining and checking the 
alignment by scribing a line with a soft lead pencil or blue chalk on 
the tire of each front wheel while spinning, and measuring the dis¬ 
tance with an improvised gauge. Direct attention to the fact that 
the wheels must run true in order that the first method may prove 
satisfactory. 

TEST OF PLAY IN FRONT-WHEEL BEARINGS AND STEERING-KNUCKLE PINS 
AND BUSHINGS AND OF TRUENESS OF FRONT WHEELS. 

Seize the wheel in both hands by the upper rim, wiggle it back 
and forth, and note the amount of play. To determine whether this 
play is in the wheel bearings or in the steering-knuckle pins, have 
each man place his hand, first on the hub and a portion of the steer¬ 
ing knuckle at the same time, then on the axle end or yoke and a 
portion of the steering knuckle at the same time, and note the amount 
of play felt, while another man wiggles the wheel. Remove the front 
wheel and take out the bearings for inspection. Call attention to 
the way sand and dust is kept out of the bearings and the oil aftd 
grease inside. When the wheel is replaced show very carefully how 
the bearings should be adjusted so that the wheel is free enough to 
oscillate, and yet the play or shake in the bearing reduced to the 
smallest perceptible amount. Explain the effect of running with a 
bearing adjusted so tightly that it is subjected to end pressure. 

While the wheel is spinning hold a piece of chalk in such a posi¬ 
tion that it will show where the wheel runs out. Show the men how 
much it runs out and let them make the test. Call attention to the 
need of keeping the nuts on the hub bolts always tight, if wheels 
are of wood, and of keeping the securing nuts tight on demountable 
rims or wheels. Point out plainly the possibility of removing a 
flange from a wooden wheel and placing a cardboard shim beneath 
it around one-half of its circumference to correct it if it runs a small 
amount out of true. Demonstrate this by having a spare wheel, such 
as the discarded wheel from a Ford, or a wheel obtained from a stock 
room or from an automobile junk yard, fitted up with one or two such 
cardboard shims with edges which extend beyond the flange un¬ 
trimmed. The advantages of wheels made of metal instead of wood 
might be mentioned. 


TEST OF PLAY IN STEERING MECHANISM. 

While a truck or car is on the ground, make clear to each man, 
by having him place his hand on each joint, the fact that the steering 


23 


gear can be moved back and forth rapidly just as far as the lost mo¬ 
tion or backlash permits full movement. Note the amount of play in 
each joint. Show each man that play in the tie-rod end pins, yokes, 
and the joints at the reach rod ends invariably results, not because 
of poor material, but because of carelessness and neglect in the matter 
of giving them daily greasing or oiling and of giving them sufficient 
protection by the use of leather boots or other suitable coverings. 

Show the men that up-and-down play in the pin and yoke joints 
in the ends of the tie-rods is one of the chief causes of rattle and noise. 
Explain the fact that a very small amount of play at the rim of the 
steering wheel is not objectionable and, in fact, unavoidable. Point 
out the method of adjusting the mechanism at the bottom of the 
steering column. Make clear that an attempt by the driver to tighten 
this adjustment may result in a condition of the steering mechanism 
such that it will be free when the car is rolling straight ahead, but 
will bind excessively or almost immovably when the car makes a 
short turn. For this reason it is well to have the front axle jacked 
up off the ground when any adjustment of the steering gear is at¬ 
tempted. 

Make the prospective driver realize that his own safety as well as 
that of others depends more upon the condition of steering gear and 
brakes than upon that of any other parts of the machine. In order 
that these may be kept in good condition, they must be lubricarted 
faithfully every day. If this is neglected there will be wear and lost 
motion, and with lost motion the effect of irregularities of the road 
will be like hammer blows on the parts and in time they may fail, 
due to what is popularly called crystallization. The strain on the 
knuckles and steering mechanism is very great when they are worn 
loose, just as the strain on a rope is great whenever the slack is taken 
up suddenly. 

III. 

Subject: 

Care of springs and of rear system, and test or inspection to determine 
whether they are in good order; study of construction of these parts and 
of effect of neglect; adjustment of brakes. 

Material and equipment for instruction: 

1. A typical heavy truck or complete chassis. 

2. A typical touring or passenger-carrying car (or complete chassis). 

3. Manufacturer’s instruction book and illustrated parts list for truck 1. 

4. Same as 3, but for car 2. 

5. Jacks, small heavy boxes or other suitable blocking, tools such as are 

commonly furnished with a car or truck. 

6. Shackle bolts, spring leaf with eye, and universal joint parts, all, if 

possible, badly worn, to be used to illustrate effect of neglected lubrica¬ 
tion. 


24 


CARE AND INSPECTION OF SPRINGS-EFFECTS OF ABUSE. 

Have each man examine spring center bolts and try nuts on the 
spring clips to be sure that they are tight. Emphasize the following: 
Nuts on spring clips are well tightened when the truck or car is new, 
but they require frequent taking up. It is well to have graphite and 
oil on threads or to smear them with grease to reduce liability of 
rusting so fast that twisting off will be the result of an attempt to 
take them up. Explain how tight clips reduce liability of •breakage. 

Pass around among the men several spring shackles and shackle 
bolts which have been worn half way through,- also a leaf or two with 
the spring eye bushings and the metal of the spring eye worn badly. 
If these parts can not be obtained use mounted sketches to illustrate 
the effects of neglected spring lubrication. 

Pass around two or three leaves which have become very badly 
pitted and rusted, and explain the need of spring leaf lubrication. 
Mention the use of leather straps or ropes and of rubber bumpers 
on passenger carrying vehicles to confine the movement of the 
springs within such limits as will reduce liability of breakage. 

In conclusion, emphasize the need of faithful daily lubrication of 
spring shackles and bolts passing through spring eyes and of regu¬ 
lar attention to tightening of spring clip nuts. 

CARE AND INSPECTION OF UNIVERSAL JOINTS AND PROPELLER SHAFT- 

EFFECTS OF ABUSE. 

Select cars which have exposed propeller shafts and universal 
joints and have the men test them by hand for lost motion. If the 
flange or one yoke of a universal joint is held with one hand and an 
attempt is made with the other to turn the shaft back and forth, 
excessive play in the joint can readily be felt. If an attempt is 
made to lift the propeller shaft up and down additional radial play 
will often be evident. 

Show the men that at the forward end of most drive shafts there 
is a telescopic or slip joint. This joint, if allowed to become dry, 
will stick when under load and put a heavy thrust on the bearings 
in the gear box, possibly on the bearings which support the pinion 
shaft, and on the inside mechanism of the joints. Pass around 
among the men illustrated parts lists, manufacturers’ instruction 
books, or mounted drawings, showing the internal construction of 
universal joints. If possible secure a universal joint from a junk 
pile. Show them that universal joints have heavy pressure concen¬ 
trated on comparatively small surfaces. Therefore these parts 
should, at all times, be protected from grit and water and be prop¬ 
erly lubricated. The effect of neglect or abuse can be demonstrated 
by showing a joint which has been burned out. 


25 


Emphasize the fact that a perfectly lubricated joint will outlast 
the machine, but that a dry joint will be absolutely ruined beyond 
all hopes of further use in a very short distance, possibly less than 
a hundred miles. Occasional inspection of the metal or leather 
housing which surrounds the joint to insure that it is in such con¬ 
dition as to retain a lubricant and exclude foreign substances and 
regular lubrication of the joint with a proper grade of lubricant are 
very important items in motor car care. 

INSPECTION AND ADJUSTMENT OF BRAKES. 

For testing brakes, jack the rear axle up until both rear wheels 
clear the ground by small but equal amounts. The brakes, if ex¬ 
ternal or contracting type, should be inspected to determine the con¬ 
dition of the linings. They may be worn badly, may be coated with 
grease or oil, or the brackets or operating mechanism may be in 
such condition that they are “dragging” or “riding on the drums.” 
One man should move the brake pedal down a small amount at a 
time while another man tries first one wheel, then the other, to de¬ 
termine whether both take hold at the same time, whether both hold 
about equally and one is not locked while the other can be turned, 
and finally, whether there is any dragging when they are supposed 
to be released. Emphasize the fact that there are a large number of 
joints, shafts and pins in the brake operating mechanism which 
require regular lubrication to keep them in good order and to prevent 
wear which will soon result in rattle. Demonstrate methods of 
brake adjustment outlined in the manufacturer’s instruction book 
on Timkin axles and, what is more important, give practice in brake 
adjustment. 

Before brakes are adjusted for clearance between the band or shoes 
and the drum an attempt should be made to raise the wheel up and 
down and to wiggle the rim of the wheel back and forth to determine 
whether there is present enough lost motion to affect the clearance to 
a serious extent when the machine is let down off the jacks or blocks. 
When internal brakes-have been refaced the following method is 
often used to determine whether they fit properly: The drum is 
wiped clean and chalked. The wheel is mounted, turned with the 
brake set, and then removed. Chalk on the brake facing shows 
whether one or both halves held. Chalking the brake facings instead 
of the drums may often be effective. 

Point out and explain to the men the reasons for brake equalizers. 
Explain also that in spite of an equalizing lever unequal braking 
will result if one band is improperly adjusted or coated with grease. 

If brakes become oily or greasy the wheels should be removed and 
all of the oily parts thoroughly cleaned with kerosene or gasoline. 
The steps necessary to prevent the recurrence of the trouble should 


26 


be taken. Reduce the depth of lubricant in the rear axle housing 
to the proper level. Wipe out the grease or oil which has gathered 
between the axle shaft and the housing and insert new felt washers 
if necessary. 

Impress the following precautions both now and later during 
driving instructions: 

1. Both sets of brakes should always be kept in proper adjust¬ 
ment and first-class working order. The safety of the driver and of 
others depends on them and on the steering gear as much as on any 
other parts of the vehicle. 

2. Always spare the brakes when descending a hill by having the 
gear shift lever in one of the lower speeds and the clutch engaged, 
in order that the engine may act as a brake. Gears should be shifted 
before the car starts down hill, as it may be difficult or almost im¬ 
possible to shift gears while the car is moving rapidly. 

3. If continued braking is necessary, use the two sets of brakes 
alternately to prevent overheating. 

4. When the brakes must be used on slippery surfaces or steep 
grades the clutch should be left engaged, the gear shift lever placed 
in low, or even in some other speed, to prevent danger of locking a 
rear wheel and causing a dangerous skid. The clutch should be re¬ 
leased just before the car conies to rest to prevent stalling of the 
engine. 

IV. 

Subject: 

Inspection and study of certain engine parts with explanations by the in¬ 
structor ; demonstration and explanation of certain repair operations at 
which a driver might serve as helper; explanation of effects of abuse 
on these parts. 

Material and equipment for instruction: 

1. A typical engine in dissembled condition with various parts displayed 

on the bench or table for inspection. The engine base can be sup¬ 
ported on suitable horses. A pair of scored cylinders or a scored 
block. 

2. Piston and rings in a badly scored condition to illustrate running with¬ 

out oil. 

3. Connecting rod with bearing burned out or samples of burned-out 

babbitt bearings. 

4. A piston or cylinder head with heavy carbon deposit. 

5. Babbitt bearings which have been in service and show the characteristic 

dull appearance. 

G. Tools for instructor to use in demonstrating, including the following: 
Vise, 12-inch hand bastard file, lead tube of Prussian blue or lampblack 
in oil, scrapers, oilstone, socket wrenches, cotter pins, wire. 

CYLINDERS. 

Have the men examine such cylinders as are available. If possi¬ 
ble, have one cylinder or block which is scored. Explain the follow¬ 
ing: New cylinders are made round and comparatively smooth, but 


27 


not until after the engine has been run several hundred or prob¬ 
ably 1,000 miles do they become highly polished. During the work¬ 
ing in, fine metal dust is worn off the new walls and new pistons, and 
becomes mixed with the engine oil. The engine should not be raced 
and should not be overloaded during this time. The oil in the 
engine base should be drained and the system flushed out with kero¬ 
sene several times during the first 1,000 miles. 

PISTONS AND RINGS. 

Pass around among the men a piston and rod which are in good 
order and another piston which is scored. Point out the effect of 
running without oil. Explain the purpose of the drilled oil gutter 
below one of the rings. Bring out with emphasis that a piston will 
be cool enough to fit the bore properly as long as there is water in the 
cooling system and a sufficient supply of good oil in the oiling system, 
but as soon as, for any reason, the oiling system fails, the friction 
will cause so much heat and expansion that the piston will stick or 
seize in the cylinder. Before it sticks, however, it will wear grooves 
up and down on the piston and the cylinder walls—that is, it will 
score the walls. 

If an engine has seized it should be allowed time to cool gradually 
(water should not be poured into an empty cooling system while the 
engine is extremely hot). An ounce or more of engine oil should be 
poured into each cylinder through the spark-phfgTiole or other open¬ 
ing and the engine turned over by hand with the plugs out until 
free. As soon as possible the engine should be inspected by the tester 
or a repair man who will test the compression, remove the head or 
cylinders, and examine their condition to see whether complete tear¬ 
ing down and rebuilding is necessary. 

Show how to remove a ring by use of a paring knife or piece of 
hack-saw blade which has been properly ground and taped, but do 
not have the men do this. Show how rings must be compressed by 
hand or with a split ring made of tin or sheet iron when the piston 
is entered in the cylindef. 

FITTING BEARINGS. 

Point out and explain the construction of the bearings used in 
the large ends of the connecting rods and of those in the engine 
base which support the crank shaft. Pass around for examination 
two babbitt-bearing liners or bushings, one bright and freshly 
scraped and another with the characteristic gray color which shows 
that it has been in use (or a partly scraped old bearing). Explain 
that since the bearing metal is softer than the crank shaft, sand and 
gritty matter if carried into the bearing by oil will become im- 


28 


bedded in the babbitt and wear the shaft or crank pin. This indi¬ 
cates the necessity for periodic draining of the engine base or oiling 
system and flushing with kerosene. 

BEARING FITTING. 

Demonstrations and explanations of bearing fitting are to be given, 
not with any idea that the driver is to be a competent repair man, 
but because he may be used as a repair man’s helper. His knowing 
something of the construction of bearings may make him realize 
more fully the importance of lubrication. 

Clamp up a rod or main engine bearing tightly. Allow the men 
to try the fit by hand for ease of turning and for play. Remove the 
cap and dress down with a file or remove or dress down the shims 
until the bearing binds perceptibly when the nuts are drawn up. 
Wipe the pin or journal dry, coat very lightly with Prussian blue 
or lampblack and oil and tighten up again. Then turn the engine 
and take the bearing apart. Demonstrate and explain scraping in, 
but do not necessarily attempt to complete the operation. No bearing 
should be so tightly fitted that no oil can work in between the surfaces 
or the babbitt will soften or will be drawn out of place, and fill the 
oil grooves or oil holes thus preventing further lubrication. 

When a bearing has been fitted or the lost motion taken up the 
securing nuts or bolts should be drawn up as tightly as possible, with¬ 
out danger of twisting them off or stripping the threads, and should 
be secured by cotter pins, or if on studs, by locking wires. If, when 
the nuts are tight the bearing binds, the shims should be fitted. The 
driver should be given a chance to try the fit of a rod-bearing with a 
rod clamped on a shaft, held in a vise, that he may know the dif¬ 
ference between a bearing which has been properly taken up and one 
which is too tight. When an engine is run without oil the bearings 
become so hot that the babbitt softens and runs or pounds out. If 
with the first warning knock the engine is stopped and after it has 
cooled, ‘oil is added, it is possible that the bearing will not be too 
loose to permit the moving of the car to the repair shop under its own 
power. The driver should always secure orders to do this from one 
higher in authority. If bearings are of bronze with babbitt linings, 
less damage will generally result than if of all babbitt. At the front, 
engines will generally be completely torn down and rebuilt only at 
the base repair shops. Such work is simply taking up lost motion in 
bearings, especially rod bearings and grinding valves, will be done by 
repair men, often with the aid of drivers. 

VALVES AND VALVE MECHANISM. 

Pass around for examination, valves, tappets, or pushrods, cam 
shaft, springs, and other parts of valve operating mechanism so as 
to make the drivers familiar with the construction. Explain tappet 


29 


clearance as to reason, amount, method of adjustment and the use of 
paper as a gauge when a better feeler or thickness gauge is not avail¬ 
able. The reason for valve grinding may be explained, but actual 
demonstration and practice should occupy more time, and will be 
taken up later. 

V. 

Subject: 

Practice in certain shop and repair operations which the driver may per¬ 
form (or at which he may assist) ; testing compression; grinding and 
adjusting valves; removal of carbon; explanation of valve setting. 

Material and equipment for instruction: 

1. Complete power plant from a typical truck or car (preferably four cyl¬ 

inder) or a whole truck of car. 

2. Engine or engines on which students can practice valve grinding. Cyl¬ 

inder blocks with valves and valve springs in place make excellent sup¬ 
plementary equipment. Engines may be in trucks or in pleasure cars, 
which can be secured for the purpose. 

3. Valve-grinding compound, both fine and coarse. 

4. Socket, valve cap, and spark-plug wrenches. 

5. Screw driver's or special valve-grinding tools. 

6. Breast drill or carpenter’s brace for the instructor to use in demon¬ 

strations. 

7. Wire-coil springs, not stiff, to be placed around valve stems to make 

grinding easier. 

8. Scrapers for removing carbon. 

TESTING COMPRESSION. 

Have each man test the compression of the engine by turning it 
over with the starting crank. Show him that he must not let the 
crank slip out of engagement with the crankshaft and should rock 
it against each compression to feel whether all seem to be equal. 
When a difference has been noted the cylinders should be tried singly. 
Relieve the compression in all but the one tested by opening the 
priming cups or removing the plugs. 

Emphasize the following: Smooth running of the engine can not 
be attained unless all cylinders are in good order and have equal 
compression. Compression leaks are of three classes: 

1. Past various joints such as the cylinder-head gasket, valve cap, 
spark plug, priming cup, etc. 

2. Past pistons and piston rings. 

3. Past valves. 

When the engine is running slowly or is turned by hand, leaks 
listed under the first class can generally be detected by the hissing 
sound and can be located by running oil around the various joints 
and watching for bubbles. Leaks in the cylinder-head gasket can 
generally be detected by holding the ear over the filler cap of the 


30 


radiator (which should be well filled) and listening for a bubbling 
or gurgling sound while the engine is turned slowly by hand. If it 
is supposed that leaks are past pistons and rings the cylinders should 
be tested individually for compression. Any one which is weak 
should have about two tablespoonsful of heavy engine oil added and 
be tried again to determine whether the sealing of the piston and 
rings against leakage increases the compression. If leakage is no¬ 
where else it must be past the valve and may be due to insufficient 
clearance between tappet and rocker arm and stem; to the stem 
sticking in the guide; or to a warped valve or to a valve which does 
not fit against its seat properly. Generally removal and grinding is 
necessary unless, after careful examination, faulty adjustment is 
found. 


VALVE GRINDING. 

Tell the men that every driver should be able to grind in the valves 
in his car and that he may have to do so to keep it always in the best 
possible running order. Give every man careful instructions and 
cautions before he undertakes the work. All deposits of carbon 
should be carefully scraped from the valves and valve ports. Pieces 
of waste or of cloth should be placed in the cylinder and in the valve 
spring ports to catch any particles of emery or grinding compound, 
which otherwise might cause trouble. Use of too much grinding 
material is to be avoided. Emery must not be allowed to get on the 
valve stem or in the guide. Caution the men against allowing valves 
to be interchanged. Explain how a valve with a sprung stem can be 
tried for fit in the guide or against the seat by use of a soft lead 
pencil or the blue color which is used in spotting bearings. If there 
is any difference in the stiffness of valve springs the stiffer ones 
should be used on the exhaust valves. When a valve spring has been 
broken a washer can be inserted to allow it to be used until a new 
one can be obtained. 


CARBON REMOVAL. 

When the cylinder head (if detachable) is removed for valve 
grinding all carbon deposit should be removed from the pistons and 
the cylinder heads by scraping. When the head is replaced no 
shellac should be used on the gasket unless it has been used before or 
unless a tight joint is found impossible without it. Heavy oil or 
grease should be applied to the gasket surfaces and great care taken 
that no dirt or foreign substance is in the way. Care should be taken 
that the bottoms of tapped holes in the block, if cap screws are used 
instead of studs, are not full of carbon. A twist drill dipped in oil 
will make removal of dirt from the holes easy. All threads should 


31 


be treated with graphite and oil to lessen the strain on them when 
drawing up, and to make subsequent removal easier. When the head 
has been drawn down evenly the engine should be run, without 
water, until well warmed up and the nuts drawn a little tighter. 

Accumulation of carbon can be to a large extent prevented by addi¬ 
tion of a small quantity of kerosene (or of wood alcohol), when the 
engine is warm and allowing it to remain all night. 

Carbon can be removed by the oxygen-burning method, but care 
must be taken that both valves are closed and that there is not a good 
spark plug in the cylinder being treated. 

VALVE SETTING. 

Explain to the men that valve setting or valve timing is generally 
done only by repair men and that there are generally suitable marks 
on cam gears or flywheel to guide in securing the exact setting. 
Point out these marks and explain their meaning. As the piston 
approaches the head of the cylinder on the exhaust stroke, the exhaust 
valve should be closing and should close against its seat just as the 
piston starts down, d he inlet valve should begin to open after the 
exhaust valve is completely closed. This should occur when the 
center mark oii the flywheel is 1 inch and not more than 2^ inches 
past the top position or marker. 


VI. 

Subject: 

Care of engine oiling system ; examination of various parts with explana¬ 
tion of principles of operation; devices to indicate condition of the 
system and guard against failure; symptoms which may warn the 
driver. 

Material and equipment for instruction: 


1. Disassembled engine with parts arranged on table or bench for exhibit 

purposes. 

2. Instruction books which have good illustrations of engine oiling 

systems; or better, mounted illustrations of oiling systems. Charts or 
pamphlets issued by oil refiners. 

3. Drilled crankshaft for force feed oiling. 

4. Bearings which are grooved for force feed oiling. 

5 . Connecting rod with tube or duct for carrying oil up to piston and cylin¬ 

der in a full force feed system. 

6. Typical oil pump or oil pumps together with filter screen or mounted 

illustrations of the same. 

7. Engine base with splash troughs for circulating splash system or 

mounted illustration. 

8. Scored cylinder and piston, burned-out bearings and any other parts to 

be displayed to show effects of neglect. 


32 


9 Four oil sample bottles of the same size, preferably 4 ounce, to be 

labeled: 

(1) New engine oil. 

(2) Engine oil after long use—thinned from kerosene which has 

worked past pistons. (This can be artificially prepared by 
mixing kerosene with oil which has become discolored by use.) 

(3) Residue taken from bottom of crank case. (Such residue can be 

obtained from the base of an engine which has been torn down 
or from the bottom of a pail in which oil drained from an 
engine has been allowed to settle. It can be made as thick 
as necessary by the use of blotting paper.) 

(4) Condition which oil will be in when at low temperature. (For 

this use vaseline or cup grease poured into the bottle while 
melted and allowed to solidify with a smooth surface.) 

IMPORTANCE OF LUBRICATION. 

Explain to the men, as plainly and clearly as possible, that the best 
possible lubrication at all times is of great importance. If any of 
the moving parts of the engine rub together without oil, for even a 
few seconds, more wear will take place than would result from 
thousands of miles of normal service. Two pieces of metal which 
look polished to the unaided eye, when examined under a strong 
magnifying glass can be seen to be covered with irregularities. A 
newly machined piston or piece of steel will appear about as smooth 
as freshly plowed ground. Oil prevents wear by producing a film 
or coating on each surface just like a sheet of ice over a cement side¬ 
walk. The oiling system in the engine supplies oil to the bearings. 
The driver must at all times keep the necessary oil in the engine base 
and must keep the oil in good condition. No matter how good the 
oil is, failure will result if proper care is not given. The effective¬ 
ness of good oil is destroyed by gritty matter like sand carried in 
suspension, or by kerosene or the heavier part of gasoline, which con¬ 
denses in cold cylinders, and having worked down past the pistons 
and rings makes the oil in the engine base too thin to lubricate 
properly. 

FILLING GAUGE OR DEPTH INDICATORS. 

Show and explain the devices used to let the driver know how much 
oil is in the engine base, such as try cocks, float-controlled indicator 
or gauge, and dip stick or wire. Explain and demonstrate the prac¬ 
tice of striking the handle of a drain cock to insure that it will not 
shake open. 

METHODS OF SUPPLYING OIL TO MOVING PARTS. 

Explain the circulation of the oil and the method of getting it to 
all important moving parts in each of the common types of oiling 
systems. 


33 


1. Splash. 

2. Circulating splash. 

3. Force feed. 

4. Combined force feed and splash or spray. 

5. Draining crank case or oil well. 

Pass around among the men instruction books for several of the 
well-known makes of trucks, which have diagrams or illustrations 
showing clearly the oil-circulating system. Diagrams cut from books 
and mounted on cards will be especially effective. Some very good 
diagrams and charts have been prepared by several oil refiners. 
Show a drilled crank shaft, grooved babbitt bearings, crank case, 
or oil base with splash troughs, and any other parts, to illustrate 
oiling systems. 

DEMONSTRATION OF SPLASH OILING. 

Secure an engine which has removable plates on the sides of the 
crank case. Remove the.se plates and drain all oil from the case. 
Run the engine very slowly until all excess oil has been thrown from 
the rods, but not long enough to injure the babbitt bearings. Re¬ 
place the drain plug. Have the men watch closely through the open 
handholes, and while the engine is running slowly add oil gradually 
until the rods begin to touch the surface. Let them see for them¬ 
selves how effectively the oil is splashed over everything inside the 
engine. Explain that this method can be used when the oil pump 
has failed in a circulating or in a forced-feed system to enable the 
car or truck to be driven to a place where it can be repaired. 

DASH GAUGES OR CIRCULATION INDICATORS. 

Explain to the men the use of and need for devices on the dash to 
indicate to the driver whether oil is being supplied to the bearings 
If possible, show such devices in operation on engines which are 
running. For force-feed systems a pressure gauge is generally used, 
for splash either a circulation indicator or a pressure gauge, and for 
noncirculating splash a drip feed is often used. 

PERIODIC DRAINING AND FLUSHING. 

Have a man place a pail beneath the engine of a truck or car and 
remove drain plug or drain plate and allow the dirty oil to run out. 
Explain the reasons for periodic draining, with special emphasis on 
conditions which make it more necessary when engine is new and 
during cold weather. Explain reasons for accumulation of water in 
the bottom of the base and need of getting rid of it after each day’s 
run if it does gather. 

Pass around the four sample bottles explaining what they 
represent. 

43217°—18-3 


34 

Have a filter removed for inspection or pass one around from the 
parts o'f a disassembled engine. 

Direct men to replace the drain plug and pour kerosene through 
the oil filler into the engine base. Turn the engine over for a few 
seconds or run slowly on its own power for a half minute. Remove 
the plug and drain into another pail. Replace the plug and fill the 
crank case with fresh oil (or with the old oil, being careful not to 
pour back any residue in bottom of pail). Have men watch the oil 
gauge on the dash as soon as the engine has started, and explain that 
after the oil has been drained or almost used the pump sometimes 
becomes air bound and fails to pump oil even after the right 
amount has been poured in. 

SYMPTOMS WHICH MAY WARN THE DRIVER. 

Failure of the oiling system is due more often to neglect than to 
any other cause. The sight feed or gauge on the dash allows the 
driver to tell at a glance, at any time, whether oil is being supplied 
to the bearings. If the hand of the pressure gauge vibrates or a sight 
feed spouts oil and air or bubbles, it is likely that there is insufficient 
oil in the system. Investigation should be made immediately when 
this symptom is noticed. Boiling of the cooling water accompanied 
with loss of power may be the result of insufficient lubrication. If 
the engine is stopped immediately and the compression tried with 
the crank, the compression will generally be found to be weak, and 
the engine will not rock. In this case oil should be poured directly 
into each cylinder and enough should be poured into the base to 
restore circulation or to allow splash lubrication until a repair man 
can make the necessary examination and repairs. 

FAILURE OF CIRCULATION. 

With sufficient oil in the base, oil may not circulate because of an 
obstructed filter or pipes or an air-bound oil pump. When all the 
oil has been drained it is sometimes necessary to prime the oil pump 
or to apply suction with a piece of rubber hose, or by some other suit¬ 
able means, to restart it. 

WINTER TROUBLES AND CARE. 

In weather near or below zero lubricating oil generally becomes 
almost as stiff as grease and often is not circulated properly by the 
pump. When the engine is started it should be run gently until it 
has warmed up enough to allow the thickened oil to melt and circulate 
properly. If it is raced, or is used to pull the car immediately after 
it is started, serious damage to bearings will result. With a force- 
feed oiling system the pressure of the oil supplied to the bearings 


35 


can not be maintained when one or two bearings are very loose. 
When oil is too stiff to flow freely, either excessively high pressure 
or absence of pressure may he noted on the gauge. If any water 
runs out of the engine oil-drain plug when it is removed, after a 
day’s run in cold weather, any accumulation of water which has 
formed should he drained out every night. If this is not done the 
ice may break the pump, plug up the pump suction pipe, or obstruct 
the oil filter. 

VII. 

Subject: 

Care and attention of cooling system; systematic search for causes of 
boiling; temporary repairs, protection against frost. 

Care of the storage battery, effects of abuse. 

Material and equipment for instruction: 

1. Several sectional pieces of radiators both tube and fin and cellular 

types. (These can be secured from a radiator repair shop or from 
a radiator manufacturer.) 

2. Mounted illustrations of truck radiators with detachable top and bottom 

compartments to make cleaning or repair or plugging of tubes easier. 

3. Old teakettle or piece of old radiator to show how sediment will 

accumulate when impure water is used. 

4. Water-circulating pump with parts clean and in such order that it can 

he disassambled readily for inspection. 

5. Samples of graphite-coated special pump packing, cotton wicking, or 

string and graphite to be used in demonstrating method of packing 
pump. 

6. Several radiator tubes with ends pinched shut to illustrate temporary 

repair. Several long, slim stove bolts or machine screws, large metal 
washers and metal plates, rubber gaskets cut from old inner tube to 
illustrate temporary repair of cellular radiator. 

7. Sectional cell from storage battery. May be old one obtained from 

scrap in battery-service station and prepared with a hack saw. 

8. New battery parts: Positive plate, negative plate, unpasted grid, wood 

separator. 

9. Old battery parts to show effects of neglect and abuse or of old age: 

Old separator with thin spots. 

Old plates or sets of plates to show shedding of active material. 
Corroded terminals. 

Corroded wires. 

All of these battery parts can be obtained from any battery-service 
station. 

10. Set of mounted illustrations taken from Willard’s “Your battery, what 

it is and how to care for it,” or special photographs obtained from 
any battery manufacturer. 

CARE OF COOLING SYSTEM. 

Explain effects of dirty or impure water. Illustrate if possible by 
exhibiting an old teakettle or piece of an old radiator which is badly 
incrusted with scale. Emphasize strongly the need of using a wire 
to open the drain cock and of staying with it until after water ceases 


36 


to run and then running wire in again to be sure that the radiator is 
empty, and then of being sure that there is no water in the pump or 
in the water jackets around the cylinders. 

The spring supports for the radiator, if such are used, require fre¬ 
quent lubrication. New designs of radiators for heavy trucks are 
made with detachable top and bottom to make cleaning and replace¬ 
ment of tubes easier. Pass around among the men mounted illustra¬ 
tions of radiators of this type if actual radiators are not available to 
be shown. 

PROTECTION AGAINST EROST. 

Explain need of such protection and reason for covering lower 
rather than upper part and in extreme weather for leaving only a 
moderate size opening near the center. Explain that the difference 
between the temperature of the air and the desired temperature of 
the radiator in cold weather as compared with the difference in 
warm weather, together with the amount of excess capacity which 
has been allowed to prevent overheating when engine is run at full 
capacity, determines the proportion of the surface which should be 
covered. Explain the desirability of maintaining a fairly high tem¬ 
perature of water in a cooling system because of its effect on fuel 
consumption. 

Emphasize very strongly that even if a radiator feels warm at the 
top when blanket is removed, there may be ice in the bottom or in 
the lower hose connection and that these parts should be given espe¬ 
cial attention both when the truck is blanketed and just before it is 
started up. Feeling the hose before an attempt is made to start the 
engine may indicate that ice is present. Thawdng of the pump is 
then necessary before the engine is turned over to prevent breakage. 

If the truck or car is run on the road with the radiator frozen, it 
will soon be hot and steaming at the top and cold at the bottom. 
Running the engine slowly with the radiator entirely blanketed un¬ 
til it has become warm clear to the bottom and to the extreme edges 
is the customary remedy. When a radiator has been frozen several 
times, the tubes or water passages have generally been bulged and 
stretched out of shape. This makes successful repair more difficult. 

Explain briefly the advantages and disadvantages of alcohol, cal¬ 
cium chloride, glycerine, etc., mixed with w ater and of kerosene as 
nonfreeze mediums. Emphasize the fact that calcium chloride has 
corrosive action on aluminum pump housing or aluminum plates 
on the water jacket and on the iron of the cylinder block. Alcohol 
evaporates more readily than water and must be added from time to 
time to make up evaporation loss. Kerosene has only a fraction of 
the capacity which water has for carrying away heat and may be- 


37 


come so hot that the oil film will be burned off the cylinder walls 
and pistons and the engine run so hot it will knock. 

TEMPORARY REPAIR OF RADIATOR. 

Explain that when a radiator has been damaged by accident good 
judgment should be exercised in deciding whether it is better to 
attempt to make temporary repairs or to send for help. To attempt 
to continue running after water is gone and engine has begun to 
knock will do the engine great harm. 

When several tubes of a tubular radiator have been broken it is 
possible, if conditions justify, to pinch each injured tube shut or 
to plug it on both sides of the break and thus reduce leakage to a 
very small amount. At the end of a day’s run a new T or repaired 
radiator can be substituted, or top and bottom plates can be removed 
to allow effective plugging of damaged tubes. 

If a radiator is of cellular type, temporary repairs can often be 
made with long slim stove bolts or machine screws or long studs 
with nuts on both ends. These should be 3/16 or No. 10. Gaskets of 
soft rubber cut from an old tube should be placed under the washers 
or the plates which cover the damaged cells. These should be at¬ 
tached to a sectional piece of a radiator for exhibit and duplicate 
parts shown. 

Explain that such substances as sealing wax, tire putty, plaster of 
Paris, etc., are sometimes used effectively for temporary repairs of 
honeycomb radiators. 

Advise strongly against use of ground seeds of various vegetables, 
fine sawdust, etc., on account of liability of stopping up the passages 
intended for circulation of the water. 

A boiling radiator or hot engine should warn the driver to stop 
and find and remedy the cause before serious damage results. 

CAUSES OF BOILING. 

Point out and explain causes of boiling in a radiator: 

1. Overretarded spark or detached advance mechanism. 

2. Insufficient water. 

3. Failure of water to circulate, due to defective pump, obstructed 
radiator or hose. 

4. Fan belt loose. 

5. Running on low or with the wind and heavily loaded. 

6. Obstructed exhaust passages and muffler. 

7. Insufficient lubrication. 

8. Incorrect mixture. 

9. Valve timing wrong. 

Explain how to proceed in attempting to locate cause. This sub¬ 
ject will be covered again in the driving instruction. 


38 


PACKING THE WATER PUMP. 

Demonstrate and explain the packing of a water pump and the 
tightening up of the stuffing boxes or glands. Caution against mak¬ 
ing them tighter than necessary to prevent leakage. Explain the 
need of graphite on packing, and demonstrate the use of graphite 
on cotton wicking or cotton string as an emergency substitute for 
special graphited packing. Emphasize the need of daily turning 
down and regular filling of grease cups on pump bearings. 

STORAGE BATTERY CARE. 

Pass around among the men a sectional storage battery cell, a new 
position plate, a new negative plate, an old plate which has shed 
some of its active material, a new separator (wood insulation), an 
old separator, and an acid-eaten, corroded terminal and wire. Ex¬ 
plain carefully the care which a battery should have, laying special 
emphasis on— 

1. Regular filling with distilled water, but not overfilling. 

2. Keeping the top of the battery clean. 

3. Preventing corrosion of terminals by use of vaseline (or heavy 
mineral oil, but not cup grease). 

Pass out mounted illustrations or photographs to show results 
of battery abuse and explain cause and effect. 

Explain the severe conditions which a battery is subjected to when 
mounted in a truck, and need for daily inspection to guard against 
broken wax or jar tops and seeping acid. 

Demonstrate method of testing with a hydrometer and of testing 
each cell with a trouble lamp to find if any cell has gone dead. 

Explain that since the battery is the source of ignition on some 
engines, special care should be given to it to insure that it will be 
at all times in good order. 

Point out briefly how severe the strain is on a battery when it is 
used for starting, especially in cold weather, and the advisability 
of priming or taking any steps which will make starting easier, to 
save the battery. 

VIII. 

Subject: 

Demonstration and practice in systematic location of simple ignition trou¬ 
bles. Testing for spark at plugs; cleaning and adjusting plugs. Dem¬ 
onstration and practice of safe method of cranking by band. 

Material and equipment for instruction: 

1. Storage battery. 

2. Six-volt lamp bulb with socket and wires attached. 

3. Two pieces of insulated wire, each four feet long, with ends stripped 

back a short distance. 


39 


4. Ford timer shell and roller. 

5. Several spark plugs, with defective porcelains, to be taken apart for 

inspection. 

6. Ford car in order except that it is to have the following treatment 

before the men are in sight: The valve below the tank in the gasoline 
line is to be shut off and the float bowl emptied by draining or by 
running the engine. One of the last two cylinders is to have a sooty, 
defective plug of same type as others used, or a good plug is to have 
points bent together and to be dipped in dirty oil and put back. Two 
timer wires, those for No. 1 and No. 2 cylinder, can be detached or in¬ 
sulated from the timer terminals. 

7. Spark-plug wrench. Graphite grease. 

8. A. C. spark-plug gauges or gauges furnished by a manufacturer of 

magnetos or battery-ignition systems. 

CAUSES OF FAILURE OF ENGINE TO START. 

Explain that when the engine fails to start properly the cause can 
be found in most cases in a very short time if a regular system of 
search is followed instead of a hit-or-miss method of looking first 
one place and then another and tampering with first the carburetor, 
then the magneto, etc., without any definite reason. To run, an 
engine must take into the cylinders an explosive mixture of fuel and 
air, must compress it, and the mixture must be ignited by a good 
spark produced at the right time. 

A very good method to follow in testing or trouble hunting is: 

1. Try the compression with the hand crank, turning the engine 
at least two revolutions and rocking against each compression to 
determine that there fire the proper number and that all are nearly 
equal. - 

2. Be certain of the fuel. The best way is to prime each cylinder 
directly with a small amount, being careful not to overprime, 
especially if engine is hot. Gasoline must be in the cylinder to burn, 
and to put a small amount there is quicker and often more effective 
than working with the carburetor. 

3. Investigate the spark. Disconnect a spark-plug wire and hold 
the end a short distance from the plug, or disconnect the wire from 
the secondary coil and hold it near to its terminal, while the engine 
is turned over, and watch for the occurrence and quality of the 
spark. With all of these conditions right, the engine should start. If 
it still fails continue with 4. 

4. If engine is hot the mixture may be too rich to fire; that is, the 
engine is flooded. 

5. Test the timing of the spark by one of the following methods: 
Disconnect a spark-plug wire and hold it near the plug or near a 
clean spot on the engine, or remove a spark plug and lay it on the 
cylinder with the wire attached. Then see if the spark occurs at the 
end of the compression stroke in the cylinder under, inspection. The 
compression stroke may be found by holding the thumb over the 
open priming cup or spark-plug hole. 


40 


Turn the engine over slowly under one of the following conditions: 
With the priming cups open; with the spark plugs out; with the air 
valve of the carburetor held or blocked open; with the carburetor 
dash adjustment set as far as possible toward lean; with fuel line 
valve beneath the tank closed and the float bowl drained. This will 
rid the cylinders of the rich mixture. Restore everything to normal 
conditions and try to start the engine. If it still fails to fire or pops 
and kicks try 5. 

PRACTICE IN LOCATION OF IGNITION TROUBLES AND A STUDY OF VARIOUS 
PARTS OF FORD IGNITION SYSTEM. 

Explain to the men that the methods of test such as you are about 
to show them on the Ford can be applied to any type of ignition 
system. 

TEST SOURCE OF CURRENT. 

First point out the source of current and demonstrate by removing 
the wire from the magneto terminal and attaching a long test wire. 
Then make quick contacts with this wire against some clean metal 
part, as the radiator filler cap, while the engine is turned and current 
being produced. Attach the test lamp and have one of the men spin 
the engine for a few turns while others look for glow in lamp filament. 
Explain that the test wire, used with due care, the test lamp, or the 
lamp of the car, can be used on any car employing battery ignition 
to test the battery or source of current. 

TEST IGNITION COIL. 

Remove a coil unit and place it on the bench. Lay a wire or piece 
of metal so that it almost closes the circuit between the timer terminal 
and the secondary terminal. Hold wires leading from a storage 
battery, or from a set of dry cells, against the highest and lowest 
terminals of the unit and show the shower of sparks. Demonstrate 
the effect of loose and tight vibrator adjustment. Place a piece of 
damp paper across the terminals instead of wire and explain the 
effects of dampness. 

Pass the coil around and have the men examine the points to see 
whether they are in proper alignment. Explain that in every mag¬ 
neto and in every battery-ignition system there are circuit-breaker 
points or contact points which must be in good order—not pitted, 
burned, or out of alignment or adjustment. 

Have one of the coils, which is passed around, arranged with 
points out of line, and see whether the men will notice it. Replace 
the coils and explain that the current passes through the switch to 
the coils and on through wires to different terminals on the timer. 


41 


TEST FOR SPARK AT THE END OF THE WIRE DETACHED FROM THE PLUG. 

Remove the nut from No. 1 spark plug and hold the wire close to, 
but not in contact with, the top of the plug or the cylinder casting 
while engine is turned over and have the men watch for the spark. 
Explain that this method of testing the ignition system applies to 
any ignition system used on modern cars, and that if no spark can 
be secured when the engine is turned over, or spun in case of mag¬ 
neto, some form of ignition trouble is indicated. Make the same test 
on No. 2 plug. 

TEST TIMER. 

If no spark occurs on either spark-plug wire explain that trouble 
might be in the source of current, the magneto, or battery, which 
should be tested as has just been shown. It may be that current can 
flow through the coils but that the timer is defective. Pass timer 
parts around, but explain that since the timer on the engine is greasy 
and dirty it is best not to take it off until it is certain that it is not 
working. 

Attach one end of a test wire to the upper terminal of No. 1 coil 
and the other end to some clean metal part of the car or engine. 
Hold the spark-plug wire from No. 1 plug close to the plug, showing 
how to brace the fingers to prevent the wire from shaking around 
badly. Turn the engine and show that a continuous shower of 
sparks is produced. Disconnect the wire and explain that a spark 
should be produced every second revolution of the starting crank. 
Examine the timer wires and see that the one which connects to No. 1 
coil is properly (or improperly) attached. 

Explain that the timer mechanism might be worn or might be 
gummed up with dirty or stiff oil. Pour kerosene in through the 
oiler cap to cut this oil. To test the timer attach a test wire to the 
terminal of No. 1 coil and to the ground. If a shower of sparks is 
produced at the end of No. 1 plug wire, or across the points of No. 1 
plug when it is laid en the cylinder with the wire attached and no 
spark is produced when the wire is removed, timer trouble is indi¬ 
cated. The above test shows everything to be O. K. up to the timer. 

INSPECT PLUGS AND SPACE GAP. 

r 

When a satisfactory spark has been produced at the plug explain 
that all that is needed is gasoline to make the entire start. Remove 
the plugs and pass them around for inspection asking all to decide 
how many of the plugs have been working, and whether all have 
their points properly spaced. Explain the amount of gap which 
is desired and compare with thickness of United States postal card 
(0.010 inch thick, or 100 cards make a pile 1 inch high), and with 


42 


the thickness of a dime (new dime probably about 0.050 inch and old 
or smooth dime about 0.040 inch) thick. Distribute 0.025 gap gauges 
among the men. 

Take plugs apart and show the parts. Hub dirty oil on the porce¬ 
lain and wipe clean showing that this is the method often used to 
locate small cracks. Set the gaps in the plugs. 

MAKE SURE OF FUEL. 

Pour gasoline in each cylinder, replace the plugs, first putting a 
little graphite grease on threads and explaining the reason for so 
doing, and start the engine. 

As soon as it dies out explain that running for a few minutes 
and dying out, often with a little popping back, indicates no gasoline. 

Have one of the men open the drain valve in the carburetor bowl 
and then if no gasoline comes have him open the valve under the 
supply tank. Point out the trap and strainer and explain the need 
of draining a little out frequently to get rid of sediment and water. 

Have men start the engine and allow it to run a few minutes to 
show that it is in order. 

Send men away from the car and while they are out of sight 
tamper with one or two of the plugs, or with some other part of the 
ignition system, or with the fuel supply, and when they return have 
two men try to start it and find out the trouble in a systematic 
manner. 


DEMONSTRATE AND INSIST UPON SAFE CRANKING. 

Have each man try cranking the engine. Show clearly that a 
man must stand in a certain position to be safe when cranking. If 
he spins or pushes down, his wrists should be straight in line with 
the forearm and not turned back. His knees must not be near the 
crank. If he faces the car it is likely that his face will be too close 
to the radiator. Demonstrate that by standing with the right side 
toward the car instead of facing the radiator it is just as easy to 
spin an engine and that this position is much safer. One or two 
imitations of the attempts of an inexperienced man who tries to 
crank, with a feigned slipping of the crank or feigned back kick to 
illustrate how T he might suffer injury, will be especially good for the 
men. 

Send the men from the room several times and while they are 
gone produce some trouble and let them hunt for it, but insist that 
the search be done in accordance with a prescribed system. Make 
the troubles all ones which might happen to any car rather than 
some peculiar to the Ford. Avoid letting those who have had the 
most experience do all the work. 


43 


IX. 

Subject: 

Demonstration and practice in location of engine troubles and in making 
adjustments and roadside repairs. 

Material and equipment for instruction: 

1. Typical truck in running order. 

2. Typical touring car in running order. (Should have different Ignition 

system from that used on 1.) 

3. Test wires, test lamp, screw driver, spark-plug wrenches, priming can, 

oil can, and extra supply of engine oil. 

4. If possible, a separate magneto and separate battery ignition distributer 

for demonstration at workbench. These need not be exact duplicate 
of those used on the cars or trucks on which the men are practicing 
trouble location. 

Call the men together and review briefly the method to be followed 
in making a systematic search for the causes of engine failure on 
engines in general. 

Have two members of the group test the engine which they are to 
work on for compression, for spark and for fuel (by priming) and 
then start it up. Let the other members of the group watch this. 

Demonstrate and explain the peculiarities of the particular type of 
ignition system with which the car or truck is equipped, showing 
plainly and carefully how to proceed in testing the ignition system 
further than simply by trying for spark at the plugs. 

HIGH-TENSION MAGNETO. 

If the car is equipped with high-tension magneto, disconnect the 
conductor which connects the collector brush to the center of the 
distributor and turn this so a metal part of it is about a sixteenth of 
an inch from the magnet or some other metal part of the magneto 
or car, or turn the safety-gap cover spring until it is close to the mag¬ 
net. If the construction does not permit this test, remove the dis¬ 
tributor and fix or hold a wire with one end against some metal part 
of the magneto or of the engine and the other end near to, but not 
against the center of distributor arm, or use a test wire as seems best. 
If no spark is produced when the engine is cranked briskly, remove 
the primary or grounding wire which connects to the switch and spin 
again. If there is still no spark, examine the circuit breaker points 
while the engine is turned slowly to determine whether they break 
and make contact properly. A small mirror will make this examina¬ 
tion easy. If there is still no spark and the magneto is of the arma¬ 
ture type (similar to Bosch in construction), remove the collector 
brush and inspect for oily or dirty condition. 


44 


BATTERY IGNITION SYSTEM. 

If the car is equipped with a modern ignition distributor battery 
system, disconnect one end of the wire which joins the secondary 
terminal of the spark coil to the center of the distributor and hold 
the end close to, but not against the terminal from which it was de¬ 
tached. Crank the engine and watch for the spark. The trouble 
of cranking can be avoided by varying the method of test. Loosen 
the clamping or lock springs and lift or turn and lift the distributor 
head. Fasten one end of the test wire to ground and hold the other 
close to, but not against the secondary terminal of the coil or close 
to the center terminal of the distributor while the distributor is 
laid or held in an inverted position. Cause the breaker points to 
make the break contact with the finger or with a screw driver. If 
no spark is produced, use a test lamp or test wire to determine 
whether there is current at the primary terminals of the coil and 
at the terminals of the circuit breaker. Explain to the students 
that the current passes from the battery through the switch primary 
of the coil, through the circuit breaker points, and back through 
the wire or through the frame to the battery. Show them how to 
use the gauge on the adjusting wrench provided by the manufac¬ 
turer of the ignition system, or three thicknesses of ordinary paper, 
to determine whether the points separate far enough. Point out 
and explain the necessity of keeping the distributor clean and dry 
and explain the results of a dirty distributor. 

TROUBLE LOCATION. 

As soon as the men have received their preliminary explana¬ 
tions of the system used and a demonstration of systematic search 
for trouble send them out of sight and produce some artificial trouble 
and have them come in groups of three to try to start the engine or 
to get it to run properly. As soon as three men have begun their 
attempt to start or to run one engine call another group and assign 
them to another engine. As soon as one group has located the 
trouble, has remedied the trouble, or has had sufficient time to do so 
by following out the prescribed system, have them step aside and 
watch without making suggestions while another group of three 
make this same attempt. Watch at the start and impress the im¬ 
portance of following the system instead of searching here and there 
in a haphazard manner. 

When both groups have identified the trouble or have failed to 
do so, give a short talk showing what conditions in practice would 
bring about the trouble in question. Explain the roadside repair 
or adjustment, if one is necessary, or the attention required to pre¬ 
vent the trouble. Information for this can be found in the engine 
trouble chart. Recommend that the men study the chart faithfully. 


45 


A list of alterations which can be made to affect or prevent the 
operation of the engine will be found on page —. 


X. 

Subject: 

Continued practice in systematic location and remedy of trouble and in 
making simple adjustments and roadside repairs. 

Material: 

Same as for IX. In addition— 

1 Ford car. 

1 spare coil for modern battery-ignition system, insulated test wires, 
set dry cells. 

Continue practice in trouble location as in IX, but vary the causes 
of trouble. Let the men have an opportunity to note the behavior 
of an engine when hot and flooded and when the fuel feed is 
obstructed. Have them readjust a carburetor under close supervi¬ 
sion and explain the effects, which they should notice, indicating the 
quality of the mixture. This may be done first on a Ford because 
of the simplicity of the method of adjusting the Ford carburetor. 

Recommend the use of as thin a mixture as will give smoothness 
of operation, and explain that a mixture which is so rich as to be 
very wasteful may still give smooth and apparently satisfactory 
operation. Running on a very lean mixture reduces the tendency to 
form carbon deposits. On a hard pull an engine will knock on a very 
lean mixture, and will pull better on a slightly richer one. 

After the men have spent some time identifying trouble, remove 
the magneto or the ignition distributor arid have the men replace 
and rewire it in order that they may become sufficiently proficient 
to make such a replacement and time and wire up correctly. 

Show them carefully just what attention the particular ignition 
system requires and what tests can be made without disassembling it. 
Explain that the complete disassembling of ignition units should be 
left to specialists in that particular line of work, and should not 
be attempted by the driver. It is well for him to know how to 
substitute a new magneto for a defective one in case of emergency, 
but he should avoid the responsibility if tha repair man is available 
to make the change. 

ENGINE TROUBLE WHICH CAN BE CAUSED BY THE INSTRUCTOR. 

To give the men practice in trouble location the instructor can 
make such changes as are shown in the following list. When the 
groups of students have all had their turns at running down a case 
of trouble the instructor should explain just what causes in actual 
practice might produce results similar to the ones with which they 


46 


have just dealt. This information can be found on an engine trouble 
chart. The men should be advised to make use of such a chart. 

1. To make the engine start and die out—- 

a. Shut supply valve in fuel line. 

b. Remove fuel-tank filler cap (if pressure feed). 

c. Loosen suction line if vacuum feed. 

d. Plug fuel supply pipe with waste. 

e. Block float-controlled valve with waste or paper. 

f. Remove float-chamber cover, pour in water, and replace. 

g. Supply kerosene to float chamber and prime cylinders with gasoline. 

2. To prevent the engine from starting— 

a. Cut off fuel supply by any of the methods listed in 1. 

b. Put a little thick shellac or thick rubber cement or rubber stock be¬ 

tween the circuit-breaker points (allow to dry if necessary). 

c. Remove all plugs and foul them with library paste or with water or 

dirty oil and powdered graphite. 

d. Remove one lead from the battery terminal, wrap with paper, fit 

paper washer, replace and trim. 

e. Loosen cam in battery system or coupling at magneto to throw spark 

out of time. 

/. Put the car in gear and apply the brakes. 

. g. Turn the engine until one cylinder is just beginning the compression 
stroke, pour in about one-half pint of oil, replace the plug. If the 
right two cylinders are so treated the engine will be almost im¬ 
movable. 

h. Fasten a very fine bare copper wire around the distributor terminals 

or from the center terminal to ground. Such a wire can be obtained 
from the secondary of an oil coil or can be pulled from a short 
length of lamp cord. 

i. Short the safety gap of the magneto or coil or foul the collector 

brush, insulation. 

j. Supply kerosene or gasoline in the priming can treated with liquid 

from a Pyrene fire extinguisher. 

3. To produce irregular action at low speeds— 

a. Set spark-plug gaps too close. . 

b. Foul one or more plugs with dirty oil or oil and graphite and space 

the points closer. 

c. Loosen one exhaust-valve tappet or rocker arm enough to cause early 

closing. 

d. Place small washer between the tappet or rocker arm and the valve 

stem or tighten the adjustment to lift the valve slightly off its seat. 

e. Same as d but inlet valve. 

/. Insert an old circuit-breaker point or cover one point with a thin coat¬ 
ing of solder. 

g. Insert a weak exhaust-valve spring. 

h. Arrange a special wire to open the circuit if on a battery ignition 

system or to ground if on a magneto system within easy reach of 
the instructor as he stands beside the car or sits in the seat, but 
where it will not be noticed by the men. Cause running such as 
would result from loose connections. 

4. To produce irregular action at high speeds— 

a. Set points of plug too wide. 

b. Change adjustment of circuit-breaker points. 


47 


4. To produce irregular action at high speeds—Continued. 

c. Substitute a weak battery or nearly dead dry cells. 

d. Partly obstruct fuel supply, as in 1. 

e. Change carburetor high-speed adjustment. 

/. Set spark out of time. 

g. Connect two secondary terminals of the distributor or ground one by 
sticking a pin into the insulation from beneath where the head can 
make a ground contact. 

5. To make engine sluggish— 

a. Set the spark too late by changing or detaching advance rod or by 

changing the coupling or cam. 

b. Set mixture too rich or carburetor to flood. 

c. Disconnect or change throttle control rod or mechanism. 

d. Obstruct exhaust. 

6. To make the engine overheat or water boil— 

a. Set spark late or detach advance rod. 

b. Obstruct water circulation. 

c. Lower the water in radiator (if thermosiphon). 

d. Obstruct exhaust. 

UNIT A-3. DRIVING. 

The time required to turn out a driver who can be depended upon 
to handle his machine skillfully under all the conditions that he 
may meet in service depends upon two factors—h,is previous experi¬ 
ence and his quickness to learn. The instruction must be individual 
and must be made extremely flexible to allow such training as will 
strengthen each driver where he shows the greatest weakness. 

Take up the driving exercises in regular order, insisting on the 
mastery of the simpler ones before the more difficult ones are at¬ 
tempted. Before passing a man for road work, give him preliminary 
instruction in manipulating the controls of a typical passenger¬ 
carrying car and of a typical truck, so that he can go through the 
operations of declutching, applying the brake, shifting gears, operat¬ 
ing foot or hand throttle and spark-advance lever, etc., quickly 
without taking his eyes off of the road. Give each man this instruc¬ 
tion over again on a car or truck with the engine not running or with 
the rear wheel or wheels jacked up. If he is competent, start him 
out on the road work outlined. 

If a man is not skillful, much better progress will be made if he 
is directed to go through the operations in order while the instructor 
counts numbers, as is done in teaching the manual of arms. When 
two operations are to be performed at the same time, call the num¬ 
bers as close together as possible instead of with the usual interval. 
Allow no one to attempt driving until he had proved himself reason¬ 
ably skillful in manipulating the various controls. 

For driving instruction select a large open space or field, and 
divide it off into courses by means of stakes, ropes, boards, lime-wash 


48 


lines, or other artificial hazards, none of which can injure the vehicles. 
Give the men the greatest possible amount of maneuvering before 
taking them out on the road. 

If trucks are rented from agencies or business houses, take special 
care that the drivers in charge give the instructions in such a w T ay as 
will give the men the largest possible amount of practice instead 
of too much straight ahead driving. Men in the classes who show 
ability will be found to make excellent instructors on the practice 
field. Give a large amount of practice in systematic search for 
trouble during such time as the men are not busy at road work. This 
should be required just as much of the men who prove proficient 
drivers after a few lessons as of those who have had less experience 
or learn more slowly. 

Make changes or adjustments on various parts of the engine, the 
fuel-supply system, carburetor, or ignition system, to cause the en¬ 
gine to fail to run properly or to stop entirely, and have the men 
locate the cause and remedy the trouble. In some cases it will be 
sufficient to produce the necessary derangement while the men are 
absent and tell them the way the engine is supposed to have been 
behaving and let them determine the reason. 

Be certain that every man knows how to run down a case of 
trouble. Impress bn the men that almost anyone can run a truck or 
car, but that it takes a good man to keep one running and to find 
out what is wrong and get it running quickly when something goes 
wrong. Every man in service should take pride in keeping his 
machine in the best possible condition at all times and should remem¬ 
ber that the condition of a car or truck is just as important a factor 
in the winning of the war as the condition of a machine gun or piece 
of artillery. 

PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS. 

Before allowing men to attempt to drive, examine them indi¬ 
vidually to ascertain that each knows how to proceed to start the 
engine and how to manipulate the controls when he is to put the 
car in motion. 

TO START THE ENGINE. 

1. Be sure gear-shift lever is in neutral. 

2. Set emergency brake. 

3. Set spark lever to proper position— 

a. If battery ignition, retarded, or as directed in manufacturers’ instruc¬ 
tion book. 

&. If magneto, advance one-half or two-thirds way. 

4. Set hand throttle to such position that throttle will be slightly opened (watch 

foot throttle to determine the amount necessary). 


49 


5 * Set carburetor air-choke button or lever (on dash or steering column) in 
starting position or flood carburetor or prime, 
fl. Turn ignition switch to starting position. Caution: If engine does not start 
readily, do not lea's e switch turned on, as injury to coil or to special 
resistance coil if battery ignition is employed may result. 

7. Crank engine by giving quick pulls upward, if battery ignition; or by spin¬ 
ning, if magneto. Caution: When cranking any car always be in such a 
position that a back kick could cause no injury. 

S. W hen engine has started, advance spark, close throttle to prevent racing, 
and set dash adjustment to such a position that mixture will be no richer 
than necessary. 


TO START CAR. 

1. Release emergency brake. 

2. Press clutch pedal clear down. 

3. Move gear-shift lever to first speed. 

4. Speed up engine with foot or hand throttle, but do not race. 

5. Engage clutch gently and at same time open throttle enough to prevent 

stalling, but do not race. Caution: Continued slipping of clutch wears or 
burns clutch facing. 

TO stop car. 

1. Close throttle. 

2. Release clutch. 

3. Apply brake. 

Note.— 1, 2, and 3 should be performed all at the same time. 

4. When car has stopped before allowing clutch to engage, put gear-shift lever 

in neutral. 

5. If car is to stand, apply emergency brake. 

6. Stop engine. Speed up and open throttle slightly just before it quits turn¬ 

ing. If it is to stand, especially if weather is cold, use choker or set dash 
adjustment rich to make starting easier. 

TO CHANGE FROM FTRST TO SECOND. 

1. Release clutch (it may not be necessary to push clear against floor board). 

2. Close throttle or release pressure on foot throttle. 

Note.— Both 1 and 2 are to be performed at same time. 

3. Move gear-shift lever from first to neutral, pause if necessary, move to 

second. 

4. Engage clutch immediately. 

5. Open throttle or foot throttle immediately. 

TO CHANGE FROM FOURTH TO THIRD, FROM THIRD TO SECOND, OR FROM SECOND TO 

FIRST. 

1. Release clutch. 

2. Leave hand or foot throttle open far enough so engine will speed up to 

almost double the speed it was running when loaded. 

3. Slide to neutral. 

4. Engage clutch for instant. 

5. Release clutch immediately. 

43217 °—18-4 





50 


6. Slide from neutral to speed next lower immediately. 

7. Engage clutch immediately. 

Note.— This requires practice, but when done properly saves strain and 

wear on gear teeth. On many trucks and cars the shifting may be simplified. 

ALTERNATE METHOD OF SHIFTING TO LOWER SPEED. 

1. Leave throttle partly open and release clutch just far enough to allow it to 

slip and engine to speed up. 

2. Shift lever through neutral to next lower speed. 

3. Engage clutch. 

Note.— This works well on many trucks or cars when the driver has 

practiced it. 

The foregoing general instructions, together with a list of “ dont’s ” 
for drivers, should be typewritten and posted for the information of 
the men. 

DRIVING INSTRUCTION. 

The term “ car ” as used here means either a passenger-carrying 
car or a truck. 

1. Start engine and drive car straight forward in open field, mak¬ 
ing frequent starts and stops. Back up as straight along the course 
as possible. Keep eyes at all times turned in direction car is run¬ 
ning or is to run. Hold hand out or up as signal for each stop before 
stopping. 

2. Drive straight forward, shifting through speeds in order, mak¬ 
ing frequent starts for practice. Signal before each stop. Con¬ 
tinue this practice until control of clutch gears, etc., becomes almost 
second nature. 

3. Drive around corners marked out in field, turning at safe speed 
and making proper signals and keeping to right of center of street 
on both right and left turns. Cut steering wheel gradually during 
first part of turn and straighten gradually at last part. 

4. Practice turning in space marked off to represent narrow street 
or road, watching at all times for traffic approaching from either 
direction. (Instructor to demonstrate.) Move car slowly parallel 
to and close to right-hand curb. Look both ways. Cut wheel quickly 
to full limit and keep so turned until front wheels are close to oppo¬ 
site curb. Approach curb slowly and while car is barely moving, 
but while it is still moving forward cut steering wheel to limit in 
opposite direction. Look both ways for traffic. Back up, with eyes 
turned in direction car is moving, and watching so as not to strike the 
other curb. Just before rear wheels reach curb cut wheel to limit 
in opposite direction. Look both ways for traffic. Drive forward. 
Practice this until the necessary self-confidence has been attained. 

5. Run car both forward and backward into space marked off 
to represent a narrow entrance into a garage from a narrow street 
or narrow stall between other cars. Space should be marked off 
with boxes or light poles to represent sides of doorway and a line 
to represent the opposite side of a narrow street. Make the limits 
narrower as progress warrants. Practice this until the driver is 
confident of his ability. 


51 


6. Drive a zigzag course which is staked off and which has several 
bumps and a soft place or two (made with loose dirt or sand) so 
as to make it rather difficult to drive and to make the use of gear 
sniit and brakes necessary. 

T. 1 ractice shifting from lower to higher and then from higher to 
lower speeds while moving straight forward. When sufficient skill 
has been acquired practice same while climbing a hill. Practice stop¬ 
ping and starting on a fairly steep hill. Practice using brakes alter¬ 
nately and using engine as a brake on hill. (Caution: Do not de¬ 
clutch while coasting. Engaging a clutch with gears in low and 
engine turning slowly and car coasting at fairly high rate of speed 
is very liable to cause serious breakage.) 

8. Practice making front wheels climb over a 6 or 8 inch curb 
from a standstill. Practice towing another car. Attach cable or 
rope to hooks provided for the purpose, if there are such. If rope 
is used, practice tying clove hitch or bowline to insure against the 
knot becoming so tight that it can not be untied readily. Always 
tow slowly around corners to eliminate danger of having trailer 
skid. 

9. Practice shifting gears when clutch is not or can not be 
released. The instructor must explain and demonstrate this very 
carefully and must lay great emphasis on the seriousness and expense 
involved in repairs which will be necessary if this is not done skill¬ 
fully. No man should be allowed to attempt this until he has proved 
himself particularly skillful in handling the car or truck. The pro¬ 
cedure follows: 

a. Crank engine and if cold run until warm. 

b. Throttle engine down as low as it will run. 

c. Push car or truck until rolling (if truck, 1 mile tier hour or faster; if car, 
2 miles per hour or faster). 

d. Move gear-shift lever from neutral to first. 

c. Climb aboard quickly, or, if already in driver’s seat— 

/. Open throttle until truck or car gains speed. 

g. Close throttle and at the same time shift from first to neutral. 

h. Listen to sound of e gine; when it has slowed down almost 50 per cent 
(car or truck to be rolling and not to have lost much speed), shift to second. 

i. Open throttle until car or truck gains speed. 

j. Follow same method to shift from second to third or from any speed to 
the next higher; to shift from a speed into the next lower, as, for example, 
from third to second. 

k. Close throttle slightly'and immediately shift from third to neutral. 

l. Open throttle until engine almost doubles its speed. 

m. Shift from neutral to second and immediately open throttle. 

10. Practice starting engine without hand crank or starter. 

Method: Jack up one rear wheel (or both), block front wheels, 

shift into highest speed, prime cylinders, set spark and throttle, and 
crank engine by turning rear wheel. (Caution: Catch hold of tire, 
and not spokes, and be careful not to get caught. Release clutch, 
shift into neutral.) 

Alternate method: Prime cylinders, set spark and throttle, shift 
into high or intermediate, sit in driver’s seat and hold clutch pedal 
down while car or truck is pushed or towed, engage clutch just long 
enough to turn engine over one or two revolutions, and release to 
allow engine to run free. 


52 


MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT FOR INSTRUCTION FOR A UNIT OF 

24 MEN. 

(To be increased in direct ratio for each additional unit or fraction of a unit.) 
(a-) For shop instruction: 

1. Typical heavy truck chassis complete. 

3 manufacturer’s instruction books for truck 1. 

3 manufacturer’s illustrated parts lists for truck 1. 

3 mounted illustrations of oiling system for truck 1. 

3 mounted illustrations of oiling system of different type (if truck 
has splash oiling, other should be force feed). 

3 mounted lubrication charts. 

3 each of any other illustrations of interest from instruction book, 
mounted. 

1 complete set of tools as furnished by manufacturer. 

2. Typical touring car chassis in good order and complete. Other ma¬ 

terial and equipment as listed for truck 1. 

3. If possible, 1 Quad running gear with other material as listed for 
■ truck 1. If this is impossible, three sets of mounted photographs or 

mounted illustrations of special details of mechanical construction 
where this differs from the conventional. 

4. 1 Ford car, to be used for practice in systematic care and lubrication, 

for first practice in trouble hunting, and for first practice in car¬ 
buretor adjustment. 

5. Two other cars or trucks or one other car and one other truck to be 

used for practice in systematic care and lubrication, for inspection of 
parts to determine and report mechanical condition for practice in 
, systematic location of trouble. These should, if possible, be different 

from 1 and 2 in type of ignition and in other details of mechanical 
construction. These may possibly be rented or borrowed from 
dealers in motor cars, as they need not be used on the road. 

6. A fairly large collection of motor car parts in disassembled condition. 

These should be for one or the other of two purposes—to make the 
men familiar with the appearance and construction of the mecha¬ 
nism or to show plainly the destructive effects of neglect, especially 
in the matter of lubrication, and of other abuse. Some of these 
parts can be borrowed from a dealer or repair shop, and others 
can be selected and purchased at a nominal cost from a wrecking 
plant. The selection of these parts should be made by the chief 
instructor. They should include as many as possible of the follow¬ 
ing: Cylinders, pistons, rings, connecting rods, bearings, crank shaft, 
cam shaft, valves, and other engine parts; clutches, universal joints, 
transmission (gear set) ; front axle and steering gear; rear axle and 
differential mechanism which can be assembled and disassembled 
easily; a few ball and roller bearings of the more commonly used 
types; tires, inner tubes, and rims; a spark coil and timer, such 
as are used on the Ford, a typical ignition-distributer battery ignition 
system; a high-tension magneto; two or three carburetors with sec¬ 
tional illustrations mounted on heavy cards (or, better, carburetors 
in section). 

7. Miscellaneous tool and shop equipment, such as jacks, blocking, oil 

cans, grease guns, hydrometers, material, and supplies, etc., to be 
listed by chief instructor. 


53 


(6) For driving instruction: 

1. One truck and two passenger-carrying cars or two trucks and one 
passenger-carrying car for each 12 men. It would be advisable, 
unless the trucks and cars are in fairly good mechanical condition, 
to have one extra car or truck in reserve for each 12 men. If men 
are detailed by the Quartermaster Department or are from some 
other department for which they are to operate trucks rather thau 
passenger-carrying cars; there should be enough trucks to give 
sufficient practice in truck driving to every man, although it is en¬ 
tirely practical to start him out on a passenger car. 

Note. —Pictures and charts clipped from trade literature, manufac¬ 
turers’ instruction books, and motor publications should be mounted 
upon cards and hung upon the walls of the workshop. These should 
show details of mechanical construction of the cars and trucks 
which the men may be called upon to handle and, if possible, the 
results of abuse. When possible, a room should be set aside as a 
reading room and supplied with manufacturers’ instruction books and 
other trade literature selected by the chief instructor. 






TEST QUESTIONS. 


FRAMES. 

1. How does the frame of a heavy motor truck differ from the 
frame of a car in material and in shape? 

2. What is the purpose of truss rods beneath the frame? 

3. What attention may they require when inspected ? 

4. How are the parts of a frame fastened together and what will 
be the indications of looseness in these joints? 

5. At how many points may an engine be attached to the frame? 

6. What attention will be required at the points where an engine 
or gear box is attached to the frame? 

SPRINGS. 

7. Name the type of springs commonly used on trucks and ex¬ 
plain the methods of securing the spring to the frame. 

8. What attention is required at these joints? 

9. How often? 

10. How are springs secured to the axle? 

11. What attention do these fasteners or clips require? 

12. How often? 

13. What is the result of running with these fasteners insecure? 

14. How are the leaves of a spring held together? 

15. Are the leaves weakened by this fastening? 

16. If clips are allowed to remain loose what may happen to the 
center bolt? 

17. Will this have any effect on front axle location and on steer- 
ing ? 

18. Name the types of springs used on motor cars? 

19. T hat precaution is made on springs to prevent the leaves 
from being pulled apart when the car rebounds? 

20. What is the purpose of rubber blocks? 

21. Where are they generally placed? 

22. What is the purpose of leather straps or rope lashings? 

23. How tightly should they be applied ? 

24. What attention should the leaves of a spring receive? . 

25. What is the best material to use? 

26. How should it be applied? 

27. On any car and especially on a new one what attention should 
the springs be given to prevent breakage at the center bolt? 

28. How often should this attention be given? 

29. What attention is required where the bolts go through the 
spring eyes? 

30. How often? 

31. If lubrication of the spring bolts has been neglected or the oil 
cups or grease cups have been broken or oil passages stopped up, what 
attention will probably be required? 

( 55 ) 


56 


32. What is the result of excessive end play of the spring eye on 
the bolt which passes through it? 

wheels. 

33. Mention briefly the advantages and disadvantages of wood 
wheels as compared with metal wheels. 

34. Of the five following types, wood, wire, pressed steel, disk, and 
cast steel, which would be especially suited for use on a heavy truck ? 

35. On a light touring car for officers’ use? 

36. On an ambulance? 

37. On an airplane rescue truck? 

38. When the treads of front tires show excessive wear or steering 
is unusually difficult, what may be wrong with the front wheels? 

39. Should the front wheels be closer together at the ground or at 
the top? 

40. At the front or at the back? 

41. If a front wheel runs out of true or seems to have too much 
play, should this condition be allowed to remain ? 

42. Why? 

BEARINGS. 

43. Which would be more suited for carrying heavy loads found in 
trucks, ball bearings or roller bearings? 

44. What shape are roller bearings for wheels generally made to 
withstand the end pressure which they receive when a heavy truck 
turns a corner? 

45. What provision is there generally made in the hub to keep 
grease in and to keep water, sand, and dust out? 

46. If the driver feels sure that mud and sand have worked into 
a wheel bearing, what attention should it be given ? 

47. When a wheel is mounted by a driver or by a repair man, 
how can it be determined whether the bearings are too tight or too 
loose ? 

48. What will be the result of running with the bearings too tight ? 

49. If a cone and cup ball bearing, like those used in the Ford, 
shows signs of looseness, which part of the bearing will generally 
be the first to show the wear? 

50. When a cone is grooved or pitted, what should be done with 
it? 

51. Is it advisable to replace one ball or roller in an old bearing 
with a new one? 

52. Why? 

53. Where should the hand be placed to determine whether lost 
motion is in the wheel bearings or in the spindle bushings when a 
front wheel is found to have play or lost motion ? 

54. How should the hub cap be used by the driver to grease 
front-wheel bearings without disturbing the bearing adjustment? 

FRONT AXLE. 

55. Why are the steering knuckles on a front axle set as close to 
the wheels as possible? 


57 


.)G. If the front axle on a truck were built like that of a wagon, 
what would happen to the steering mechanism when one wheel strikes 
an obstruction? 

5<. What attention is required at the point where the steering 
knuckle turns? 

58. How often? 

59. Should a truck or car be operated when there is an excessive 
amount of lost motion in steering-knuckle pins or in steering con¬ 
nections ? 

60. If the front wheels have too much gather (are too much cross¬ 
eyed) or are spread (wall eyed) what can be done to the rod which 
joins the arms on the steering knuckles? 

61. Name all of the parts of the front axle and steering gear which 
require lubrication ? 

62. How often should they be lubricated ? 

63. What provision is often made to keep sand, dust, and water 
out of the joints in a tie-rod and steering-rod ends? 

64. How often should all steering connections be inspected for lost 
motion ? 

65. Why are the front wheels set closer at the bottom ? 

66. Why are they set closer at the front? 

67. How much closer at the front. 

TIRES. 

68. What effect does overloading have on a solid tire? 

69. Overspeeding? 

70. Striking or passing over an obstruction at a high rate of 
speed ? 

71. Running with chains on hard-surfaced roads when chains are 
not necessary ? 

72. What two methods are used to secure heavy solid rubber truck 
tires to the wheel? 

73. When a tire of the pressed-on type has been cut or injured so 
that it pounds badly is it a more common practice to mount a new 
tire or exchange the wheel ? 

74. What is the result of running a pneumatic tire underinflated? 

75. Where will a casing show the evidence that it has been under¬ 
inflated ? 

76. How should the pressure in a tire be determined ? 

77. What are the two purposes of powdered mica or soapstone 
dusted on the inner tube or into the case? 

78. What is the result if too much is used ? 

79. Where can this effect be seen? 

80. What are the three causes for the development of heat in a 
tire ? 

81. If a new tire is underinflated in the summer time, will it be¬ 
come hotter or cooler than if properly inflated? 

82. Will there be more or less separation of the fabric with a re¬ 
sultant tendency to blow out if the tire is kept underinflated? 

83. If a new tire is pumped to standard pressure and due to warm 
roads and air the pressure increases 10 or 15 pounds, will this added 
pressure burst the tire or give it added protection against excessive 
bending of the side walls? 


58 


84. What effect does a wheel which runs out of true have upon a 
tire? 

85. What effect will be noted on the front tires if the front wheels 
are out of alignment? 

86. What is the effect of an inner liner or a large inside shoe on 
a casing? 

87. What is the after effect of striking a small obstruction in the 
road, like a stone, while traveling at a moderate or high rate of 
speed ? 

88. What is the effect of oil or grease on the rubber of a tire? 

89. What is the effect of nonskid chains on tires? 

90. When should they be used? 

91. What is the effect of turning comers at too high rate of speed? 

92. What is the effect of savage use of the brakes ? 

93. What is the effect of running a tire flat for a short distance ? 

94. How often should rim nuts be examined? 

95. What should be placed upon the threads of rim nuts or the 
threads on the hubs of demountable wheels to insure easy removal? 

96. What sound will warn the driver that rims are not secure? 

97. How is a standard clincher tire applied to the rim ? 

98. What precaution should be taken to prevent nipping? 

99. To prevent pinching? 

100. What is the purpose of the valve stem spreader and clamp 
nut? 

101. Of the leather washer? 

102. Explain the difference between the beads of a Q. D., of a 
clincher, and of a straight-side tire. 

103. Explain the differences between the edges of the rims for a 
straight-side and for a clincher tire. 

104. What is the result of mounting one type of tire on a rim 
intended for the other? 

105. What attention should rims receive that have begun to rust? 

STEERING GEAR. 

106. What two types of mechanism are used in the lower part of 
the steering gear? 

107. If either type of mechanism is made absolutely irreversible 
what may happen to some of the steering mechanism when a car 
slides into a rut or runs against a curb at a slight angle? 

108. What attention does the base or chuck of a steering gear 
require ? 

109. What attention do all joints in rod ends and all other moving 
parts of the steering mechanism require? 

110. What two parts of motor-car mechanism are most essential to 
safety ? 

111. When there is a really excessive amount of lost motion in the 
steering mechanism and a clicking or knock can be heard as the 
wheel is turned rapidly back and forth for a short distance, where 
are adjustments liable to be necessary? 

112. Name all parts of the entire steering mechanism which re¬ 
quire lubrication. 

113. How often? 

114. Name the lubricant for each place. 


59 


REAR AXLE AND DIFFERENTIAL. 

115. What is the purpose of a differential? 

11G. What special disadvantage may a car suffer when equipped 
with the ordinary type of equalizing differential? 

117. Under such conditions, what does the driver generally find it 
necessary to do to increase the traction of the wheel which spins? 

118. In the ordinary type of differential is the turning effect ap¬ 
plied to one wheel or to both wheels when a car is driven around a 
corner ? 

119. In the so-called nonstall or the overrunning clutch type of 
differential is the power applied to both wheels or the outside" wheel 
or to the inside wheel when the car is driven around a corner? 

120. If such a differential has a very large amount of lost motion 
what care must be taken to avoid damaging the rear system? 

121. When the clutch is engaged suddenly what damage may re¬ 
sult? 

122. What is meant by a differential lock ? 

123. How is it operated? 

124. What might be the effect when a heavily loaded truck equipped 
with such a differential lock makes a turn on dry pavement with it 
locked ? 

125. What is meant by a dead axle? 

126. What are the advantages and disadvantages of double side- 
chain drive? 

127. What attention do the chains require? 

128. How should they be treated to give the best service? 

129. What are the more common causes of excessive snapping noise 
in chains? 

130. What is meant by a live axle? 

131. What attention do the bevel worm or spur gears in the middle 
of ther rear axle case require? 

132. What are the properties of a suitable lubricant? 

133. How much should be used? 

134. If too much lubricant is put into the axle housing, where will 
it run out? 

135. If the required amount of heavy oil has been placed in an 
axle housing and the housing is so tight that it has not leaked out, 
what should be done before an additional supply is poured in? 

136. When power is suddenly applied to rear axle through a drive 
shaft which is fitted with two universal joints and the wheels try to 
turn forward what does the axle housing try to do ? 

137. What is the purpose of a torque or torsion bar? 

138. How is the front end of this torsion bar often supported to 
cushion the shock? 

139. How must the spring saddles be secured to the rear axle if 
the car is fitted with such a torsion bar? 

140. What attention will be required at this point? 

141. What lubricant should be used? 

142. How often? 

143. When the rear wheels turn and drive the car forward how 

is this thrust applied to the frame of the car? 

144. If special radius rods are used, what attention will the joints 
at both ends require? 


60 


145. How often? 

146. What attention should the spring clips receive? 

147. How often? 

148. If the spring clips are allowed to work lose and the car em¬ 
ploys Hotchkiss drive (that is, has no radius or torque rods), what 
may happen to the spring center bolt ? 

149. When a car or light truck passes over a high enough obstruc¬ 
tion or deep enough depression in the road to cause a considerable 
amount of spring deflection, what should be done to relieve the twist¬ 
ing strain caused by action on drive shaft and universal joints? 

150. What would be the best lubricant for universal joints which 
are fitted with tight housings? 

151. How often should they receive this attention ? 

152. What provision is made to retain the lubricant? 

153. If the housing is entirely of metal, what adjustment may be 
required to take up the wear in the packing? 

154. What would be the best lubricant for spring shackles which 
are fitted with compression cups ? 

155. When oil wells or oil cups are provided, what kind of oil is 
generally used? 

BRAKES. 

156. What are the two types of brakes? 

157. When one set of brakes is used continuously on a long descent, 
what harmful effect will result ? 

158. Will using the two sets of brakes alternately relieve this 
effect ? 

159. Of what material are brake linings made to enable them better 
to resist heat ? 

160. How can brake wear be avoided when a truck or car is de¬ 
scending a long, steep grade ? 

161. What may be the result of sudden engagement of the clutch 
when the car has been coasting with a set of gears engaged and the 
clutch released? 

162. What precaution should the driver always take before de¬ 
scending a hill, especially if it has a turn around which he can not 
see? 

163. Is it an easy matter to shift gears from one speed to another 
when the car is moving at a fair rate of speed ? 

164. When car is left on a hillside, what precaution should invari¬ 
ably be taken to prevent its moving away ? 

165. What is meant by a sprag? 

166. When should the sprag be used? 

167. What will be the result of dropping a sprag if the car has 
begun to back up ? 

168. When trailers are to be towed up a hill or stopped on a grade, 
what precaution should be taken with the sprags or other devices to 
prevent them from getting away ? 

169. Describe the method of operation and advantages and dis¬ 
advantages of chock blocks, sprags, or ratchets which might be used 
on trailers. 

170. Are trailers generally equipped with brakes? 

171. Where is the control lever or pedal generally located? 


61 


172. What is the result of savage application of the brakes? 

173. If a car skids or swings to one side when the brakes are set, 
what is probably wrong with the brakes? 

174. When brakes are to be adjusted why is it generally advisable 
to jack up the rear axle? 

175. What is the purpose of a brake equalizer? 

176. Will it insure equalized breaking effort on both rear wheels 
when one brake is greasy or improperly adjusted? 

177. When brake adjustment has been made, should the brakes 
exert any drag? 

178. When a car must descend a slippery or muddy grade or must 
be stopped on a slippery surface is it better to hold down the clutch 
and bring the car to a stop with the brakes or to retard the motion of 
the car with the brakes while the engine is engaged in one of the 
lower speeds? 

179. When the rear end of a car skids to one side what should be 
done with the clutch or throttle and which way should the steering 
wheel be turned to end the skid ? 

180. If the front wheels of a car or truck fail to control its direc¬ 
tion on a turn how should they be turned if they must strike a curb? 

THE ENGINE. 

181. Name the operations which take place in the cylinder of a 
gasoline engine. 

182. What is meant by cycle? 

183. What would the objections be to a single-cylinder engine for 
propelling a motor car? 

184. How far apart will the explosions occur in a single-cylinder 
engine ? 

±85. In a four-cylinder engine? 

186. In a six? 

187. In an eight? 

188. In a twelve? 

189. Name the essential parts of a single-cylinder engine. 

190. From what material are cylinders made? 

191. Pistons? 

192. Piston rings? 

193. What difference is there between the condition of the sur¬ 
faces which slide or turn one against the other in a new engine and 

in an old engine? , . 

194. What precaution should be taken when the engine is new to 

prevent injury to cylinder walls and bearings? 

195 If sand, grit, or fine metal dust is allowed to remain mixed 
with the oil and is pumped into the bearings, what will be the result? 

196. What is the name applied to the noise made by a loose piston? 

197. How does it sound? , _ . , 

198. What kind of a noise will be made if the cylinder is scored or 
the rings are a bad fit and the compression leaks by the piston into 
the crank case ? 

199. Name three classes of compression leaks. 

200 How can it be proved definitely whether the loss of compres¬ 
sion in one cylinder is due to leakage past the piston or leakage past 
the valves? 


62 


201. How much should be used? 

202. Explain definitely how the compression should be tested in 
one particular cylinder of the engine. 

203. From what material are connecting rods made? 

204. If cylinders are handled roughly when lifted from the engine 
or replaced and the rods are bent, what effect may this have on the 
quietness of the engine? 

205. On the bearings? 

206. With what material is the lower end of the connecting rod 
lined where it joins the crank shaft? 

207. If the engine is run with insufficient lubrication, what will 
happen to this bearing? 

208. How can a knock caused by a loose connecting rod often be 
distinguished from one due to some other cause? 

209. Explain one method of testing for loose connecting rods with¬ 
out dropping the crank case. 

210. From what material is the piston or wrist pin made? 

211. What kind of a noise will be made by a loose-fitting piston 
pin? 

212. How can you locate the cylinder in which the pin is loose? 

213. What must be done with the oil in the engine base from time 
to time in order that it may be able to lubricate the bearings 
properly ? 

214. Mention two reasons why the old oil may be unsatisfactory. 

215. Which pistons move up and down at the same time in a four- 
cylinder engine? 

216. In a six-cylinder engine? 

217. What is the rotation of explosions in a four ? 

218. How can you determine the firing order in a four, six, eight, 
or twelve cylinder engine ? 

219. If a flywheel is not securely fastened to the crank shaft, what 
kind of a noise will result ? 

220. How fast does the cam shaft in an engine turn ? 

221. What is the name of the part which is interposed between the 
cam and the valve stem of an ordinary L-head or T-head engine ? 

222. How much clearance should be allowed between an inlet 
valve stem and a push rod? 

223. 'What is the reason for this clearance? 

224. Would it be necessary to set as much clearance for an inlet 
as for an exhaust? 

225. What is the thickness of an ordinary piece of newspaper? 

226. How many thicknesses of this newspaper would it be safe to 
use in adjusting clearance on an inlet valve? 

227. On an exhaust valve? 

228. Would the same amount of clearance be needed between a 
rocked arm and valve stem in a valve-in-the-head motor, where the 
valve-operating mechanism is exposed? 

229. If the adjustment of a push rod is too loose, what kind of a 
sound will result? 

230. How can this be distinguished from the sound which results 
from a loose rod or other engine bearing? 

231. What is the special advantage of an L-head engine for a 
truck or touring car as compared with a valve-in-the-head engine? 


63 


232. State in a very few words the advantages and disadvantages 
or both types of engines. 

233. hat advantages has a sleeve valve or Knight engine? 

234. F rom what material are exhaust valves often made in order 
that they may withstand the heat without warping? 

235. What is the result of a warped or carbonized valve? 

236. What operation is performed on the valves of an engine to 
make them a perfectly tight fit against their seats? 

23T. If valves become interchanged after they have been ground 
will they fit properly? 

238. When valves have been ground what attention should be given 
to the clearance? 

239. What materials are commonly used for grinding in valves? 

240. Explain the method of valve grinding. 

241. What would be the result of an attempt to grind valves in 
with an electric drill or by giving them a continuous rotary motion 
with a breast drill? 

242. What is the object of lifting the valve and turning it to a dif¬ 
ferent position frequently during the process of valve grinding? 

243. What is often placed around the stem of a valve beneath the 
head when it is being ground in, and what is the purpose? 

244. What precaution should be taken with the valve stem and 
guide after the grinding operation is completed? 

245. What will be the result if a stem has been sprung and binds 
in the guide? 

246. What could be placed on the valve stem to indicate where it 
rubs ? 

247. Explain the method of determining whether a valve is a per¬ 
fect fit against the valve seat. 

248. What is the effect of an inlet valve stem which is entirely too 
loose a fit? 

249. Under what conditions will it have the most effect upon the 
running of an engine? 

250. What will be the result of a weak exhaust valve spring and under 
what conditions will it have the most effect upon the running of the 
engine ? 

251. What can be done as a temporary remedy for a weak valve 
spring? 

252. Would it be better to have a weak valve spring on an inlet or 
on an exhaust? 

253. What will be the effect of a broken exhaust valve spring? 

254. What is the method for temporary repair? 

255. At what two places are marks generally placed on an engine 
to indicate whether the valves are properly timed? 

256. Which event of which valve would be the best to be guided by 
in replacing cam-shaft driving gears or chain in unmarked engine? 

257. What time should this event occur? 

CARBURETOR AND FUEL. 

258. Name three methods of supplying the fuel from the tank to 
the carburetor. 

259. What devices are often found at the bottom of the fuel tank? 

260. What attention should a trap or strainer receive? 


64 


261. How often? 

262. If there is any indication of leakage in the fuel line, what 
precaution should be taken when the car is allowed to stand ? 

263. State definitely what should be done when a car takes fire. 

264. What can be used to make a temporary repair of a broken 
gasoline line? 

265. What should be done with each end of this temporary repair 
to insure tightness? 

266. What materials can be placed on threaded gasoline connec¬ 
tions or on gaskets to make them proof against gasoline leakage? 

267. What is the purpose of a carburetor? 

268. What is necessary to cause the fuel in the mixture to vaporize 
to any considerable extent? 

269. Is complete vaporization generally obtained or is the mixture 
generally wet? 

270. Which would be more effective as an aid to vaporization— 
water jacketing the carburetor or preheating the air before it enters 
the carburetor and heating the mixture by exhaust jacketing a spot 
in the inlet against which the mixture leaving the carburetor 
strikes ? 

271. What would be the result of placing an inlet pipe closer to the 
exhaust pipe? 

272. What would be the result of placing an inlet pipe entirely 
within the exhaust pipe and heating the mixture to an extremely 
high temperature before it enters the cylinder? 

273. Explain the principle of the manifold used on the Liberty 
trucks. 

274. What are the indications of too rich a mixture? 

275. Of too lean a mixture? 

276. What is the purpose of a dash control? 

277. Is it better to run on a mixture slightly too rich or slightly 
too lean? 

278. If the mixture is as lean as it can be made without causing 
misfiring of the engine, will the engine develop full power ? 

279. What effect does temperature have on the flow of fuel through 
the nozzle in the carburetor? 

280. On the vaporization of fuel in the manifold ? 

281. Why does a cold motor often fire regularly only when the 
throttle is nearly closed or when it is racing unloaded ? 

• 282. Compare briefly the properties of gasoline with those of 
water and of molasses when cooled, warmed, and heated very hot. 

283. What is meant by “ loading ” ? 

284. What is done on a modern truck or car engine to reduce or 
prevent loading? 

285. Before any attempt is made to disturb carburetor adjustments, 
what other tests should be made? 

286. Before any adjustment on the carburetor is changed, what 
step should be taken to insure that the trouble lies in the carburetor 
itself and not in the fuel line ? 

287. Before any adjusting devices on a carburetor are disturbed, 
what step is advisable to take in order that the old adjustment can 
be restored? 

288. What step should be taken when a carburetor begins to flood? 


65 


289. If there is any question as to whether failure of a motor to 
start is due to the carburetor ignition system, what step should be 
taken to insure supply of fuel in each cylinder ? 

290. What will be the result of overpriming or of holding the 
choke valve entirely shut in attempt to start an engine which is 
thoroughly warm ? 

291. If the priming cup in a cylinder is opened, what should be the 
color of the issuing flame? 

292. Explain in detail what method should be pursued to insure 
easy starting of an engine in cold weather. 

293. hat would be the advantage of priming with gasoline such 
as is used in the revolving cylinder type of airplane? 

294. How can carbide be used for priming? 

295. How can a motorcycle gas tank be used ? 

296. Is it possible for a carburetor which has very little mechanical 
complication and which is free from multiplicity of moving parts 
and adjustments to give satisfactory quality of mixture under all 
conditions of service? 


ENGINE LUBRICATION. 

297. What will be the results if two dry metal surfaces are rubbed 
one against the other? 

298. If tw T o surfaces which look to be highly polished are examined 
w T ith a strong magnifying glass, how will they appear? 

299. What must the oil or grease do to each one of these surfaces? 

300. If the oil produces the proper film and prevents metal-to- 
metal contact, should there be any wear? 

301. How long would an engine run with no oil on the bearings? 

302. What effect may the dust drawn in with the air through the 
carburetor have on the cylinder walls? 

303. What is often the real nature of a so-called carbon deposit ? 

304. What may be done with an engine every night to prevent 
accumulation of carbon? 

305. What is the first indication a skilled driver will notice if the 
piston and cylinders are insufficiently lubricated? 

306. What will be the feel of the engine if the switch is turned 
off and the crank turned by hand? 

307. If an attempt is made to continue to drive an engine until 
the cylinders become perfectly dry. w hat w ill be the result ? 

308. State definitely wdiat procedure should be followed when a 
motor has seized (or frozen) ? 

309. Explain the different types of devices w 7 hich may be found 
on the dash to permit the driver to know that oil is being supplied 
to the engine bearings? 

310. What provision is made to permit the driver to ascertain the 
amount of oil in the engine base? 

311. How often is it advisable to investigate the amount of oil? 

312. What attention does the oiling system of a new car require? 

313. Why? 

314. When a motor does not use up its lubricating oil rapidly, 
what may be the condition of the oil ? 

315. What is the cause of this condition ? 

316. What is the cause of water or ice in the crank case! 

43217 18-5 


66 


317. What attention should the oiling system be given? 

318. How often? 

319. Explain the operation of a splash oiling system, such as is 
used on the Ford. 

320. Of a circulating splash oiling system? 

321. In a system of this type what device is usually provided on 
the dash to inform the driver that oil is being supplied? 

322. Explain the operation of a full forced-feed oiling system? 

323. What device is placed on the dash to inform the driver 
whether it is operating? 

324. If the pointer vibrates, what may be the trouble? 

325. If the gauge or sight feed on the dash does not indicate that 
oil is being supplied, what should be done? 

326. When? 

327. If there is found to be a supply of oil in the engine base and 
the sight feed or gauge on the dash indicates that it is not being 
pumped to the bearings, what may be the cause? 

328. What may be necessary to cause the pump again to begin 
work ? 

329. If an oil pump has failed and can not be made to circulate 
the oil, what can be done to allow the truck or car to be driven to the 
repair shop without danger of burning out a bearing ? 

330. In a full forced-feed oiling system what will be the effect of 
a loose bearing ? 

331. If a rod bearing has been run with insufficient oil or has been 
too tight, what may happen which will prevent its receiving oil ? 

332. Why will a spark plug with a cracked porcelain cause flooding 
of one cylinder with lubricating oil ? 

333. Will it be better to have the oil in the engine base hot or com¬ 
paratively cool? 

334. What condition will the lubricating oil generally be in in zero 
weather ? 

335. What precaution will be necessary before the engine is raced 
or the car or truck driven ? 

336. What will be the result if this precaution is neglected ? 

COOLING. 

337. What are the two methods of causing the water to circulate 
through the water jackets and radiators? 

338. Compare very briefly the advantages of the two types. 

339. Would it be better to have the water in the cylinders always 
so cool that you could comfortably bear your hand on the top of the 
engine block or the top of the radiators ? 

340. Why? 

341. What would be the effect of running the cylinders at a very 
much higher temperature even than that attained in the air-cooled 
engine ? 

342. What will be the result of impure water if used in a radiator? 

343. How are truck radiators often constructed to make cleaning 
easier ? 

344. What precaution will generally be found necessary after the 
drain valve is open to insure draining? 


67 


345. How often will it be necessary to repeat this? 

346 How are truck radiators often supported to relieve them of 
road shock? 

347. AA hat effect will this have on hose connections? 

348. Where should spare hose connections be kept? 

349. What can be used as a substitute for a broken hose clamp ? 

350. What attention will the water pump require? 

3^1. What material can be used for an emergency packing? 

352. Will it make any difference which direction the packing is 
wound around the shaft? 

353. What material should be used on the packing to lubricate it 
and prevent wear of the shaft? 

354. Which direction do the packing nuts on a pump turn? 

355. If a car has stood in the cold for some time, where will ice 
form first? 

356. How should a driver determine whether there is ice in the 
water pump before he attempts to crank the engine? 

357. How 7 should it be thawed? 

358. In a car which has a water pump, what is the simplest 
test to determine whether the water circulates? 

359. In a car with thermosiphon circulation, what will be the 
result of a low level of water in the radiator? 

360. Name six possible causes for a boiling radiator. 

361. What may happen to one or more tubes in a radiator which 
will cause them to leak badly even if the precaution has been taken 
to drain carefully? 

362. If one tube in a radiator is injured, explain the method of 
temporary repair. 

363. If a small portion of a honeycomb radiator has been in¬ 
jured, explain the method for temporary repair. 

364. What precautions are generally taken when a car is to be 
driven in cold weather? 

365. Which portion? 

366. How much? 

367. When it is to stand for a short time? 

368. Where will freezing take place first? 

369. If a radiator begins to steam while the car is underway, 
due to freezing, what method of procedure should be followed ? 

370. What is the advantage ot maintaining a high but uniform 
temperature of the water in the jacks at all times? 

371. Explain what a thermostat does. 

372. Explain the operation of radiator shutters. 

373. What advantage has a motometer or radiator thermometer? 

374. Name four substances in use to prevent freezing up in the 
cooling system. 

375. State briefly the advantages and disadvantages of each. 

ignition. 

376. At what time should the spark occur in the cylinder when the 
engine is cranked? 

377. When it is running? 

378. What is meant by advancing the spark? 


68 


379. By retarding the spark? 

380. Why is it necessary to change the time at which the spark 
occurs ? 

381. What is meant by automatic advance ? 

382. Explain why more advance is required when an engine is 
running with nearly closed throttle and pulling a light load than 
when running at the same speed with wide-open throttle to pull a 
heavy load? 

383. What is the symptom of too much advance ? 

384. With a battery ignition system, where should the spark lever 
be set when the engine is cranked ? 

385. Where with magneto ignition? 

386. What appearance does a spark plug have when removed from 
a cylinder which has not been firing? 

387. How should it be cleaned ? 

388. If it is separable and has been taken down, how should it be 
tested for compression leaks when assembled ? 

389. How far apart should the points be spaced ? 

390. How does this compare with the thickness of a dime ? 

391. With the thickness of a United States postal card ? 

392. With the thickness of a calling card ? 

393. What will be the effect on the running of the motor if the gap 
is too large, and under what particular operating conditions? 

394. What if too close? 

395. What is the best method of testing a plug? 

396. Why may laying it out on the cylinder with wire attached 
prove an unsatisfactory method of testing? 

397. What should be used on the threads of a plug to make subse¬ 
quent removal easy ? 

398. Explain the difference between the different types of plug 
threads. 

399. How many are there? 

400. What may be the effect of using the pliers to tighten the bind¬ 
ing nut on top of a plug? 

401. What effect does the intense heat developed during a long, 
hard pull with wide-open throttle have on the insulating properties 
of porcelain? 

402. Explain three methods of testing to determine which cylinder 
of an engine is missing fire. 

403. What causes other than ignition might cause the cylinder to 
miss? 

404. How can it be determined definitely that current capable of 
producing a good hot spark is being supplied to the plug? 

405. How can the driver be sure that the plug in the missing 
cylinder is a good one? 

406. What other cause besides poor ignition may cause a cylinder 
to miss fire when the engine is running idle, even though the com¬ 
pression seems O. Iv. when tested by hand crank ? 

407. What is the special use of auxiliary spark gaps, often called 
intensifiers, when a motor seems to miss irregularly? 

408. How many dry cells are needed to operate a battery system? 

409. What will be the result if they become damp whiie con¬ 
nected up? 


69 


410. How are they connected? 

411. A\ hat precaution should be taken to prevent their running 
down when not in use? 

412. How should a storage battery be tested to determine whether 
it has enough “ juice” to start? 

413. What will be the effect of dirty battery terminals? 

414. How are they to be kept from getting into these conditions? 

FORD IGNITION. 

415. Trace the path of the current in the primary circuit of the 
Ford ignition system. 

410. How should the magneto be tested to determine whether it 
supplies current (two ways) ? 

417. If it supplies no current, what should be done with the mag¬ 
neto terminal ? 

418. What condition may be found? 

419. How can a short test wire or screw driver be used to deter¬ 
mine whether the current gets past the switch and to the coils? 

420. If the switch is out of order, how should the test wire be con¬ 
nected to allow operation? 

421. If no spark is obtained at the end of wire detached from No. 1 
spark plug, where should the test wire be placed to determine 
whether the trouble is with the coil or with the timer? 

422. What troubles may be found in the timer? 

423. How should the adjustment of the vibrator points be tested 
to determine the quality of spark produced ? 

424. If a coil is thought to be defective, how can it be tested on 
the machine? 

425. Under what conditions may contacts need refacing? 

426. What effect will dampness or water have on coils and sec¬ 
ondary wires, and what precaution may be necessary? 

427. What remedy will be found necessary if coil and wires are 
wet ? 


MODERN BATTERY IGNITION DISTRIBUTOR SYSTEM. 

428. In a modern battery ignition distributor, trace the path of the 
ignition current from the battery through the various devices in the 
primary circuit back to the battery. 

429. Trace the secondary current from the secondary winding of 
the coil through the path it follows back to the secondary winding 
again. 

430. What is the purpose of the coil of wire like that on an electric 
toaster which is often found on ignition coils? 

431. What is the result of leaving the switch turned on ? 

432. If an engine fails to start when cranked over with the ignition 
switch turned in the proper position, where would be a good place 
to detach a wire to watch for the spark? 

433. If the spark is to be produced without turning the engine 
over, what should be done with the contact points in the circuit 
breaker ? 

434. If the secondary wire which carries the secondary current 
(spark) from the coil to the middle of the distributor is detached 


70 


and continued attempts are made to start the engine or to produce 
sparks, what may be the result on the windings inside of the coil ? 

435. What is the purpose of the distributor? 

436. What attention should it have and how often? 

437. What would be the result of black deposit of metal or of 
carbon dust in a distributor? 

438. Under what condition of running would this be most liable 
to happen? 

439. If no spark can be obtained when the wire which leads from 
the coil to the center of the distributor is detached and held in the 
proper position, and.the contact points in the breaker are operated 
with the finger or screw driver, what might be the cause ? 

440. How could the test wire be used to test for “ juice ”? 

441. What precautions should be taken to prevent injury to wires 
or to battery if this method of testing is used ? 

442. Explain how to determine whether the spark # occurs at the 
right time. 

THE BATTERY. 

443. If there is no spark on the battery ignition system, and a test 
indicates that there is not any current, how could the lights be used 
as a test of the battery? 

444. If they will not burn when the switch is turned to the proper 
position, what trouble may there be with the battery ? 

445. What instrument is used to test a storage battery? What 
will be the result of corroded wires or terminals? 

446. What will be the result of loose mounting of battery in bat¬ 
tery box? 

447. What kind of water should be used in the battery? 

448. How much? 

449. How often? 

450. At what temperature will a live battery freeze? 

451. A dead one? 


MAGNETO. 

452. What advantage has a high-tension magneto over a battery 
system for a truck? 

453. How many wires are required for the operation of a four-cyl¬ 
inder engine with a high-tension magneto? 

454. What is the other wire used for? 

455. What connection must be made to stop the engine? State 
three important rules for the care of the magneto. 

456. How much oil is required? 

457. What is the result of too much? 

458. What is the simple method of determining whether a high- 
tension magneto is in good order and can deliver a spark which 
will start the engine? 

459. If this test shows no spark, what should be done with the 
switch wire? 

460. If this fails, where is the next place to look for trouble? 

461. How can these points be seen if the magneto is in an inacces¬ 
sible place? 

462. How far should the}^ separate? 


71 


403. If they touch and separate, where should the trouble be looked 
ror next in a Bosch or other similar magneto? 

464. In a Dixie. 

465. What attention should the distributor of a magneto receive? 

466. How often? 

467. What will be the result of carbon dust or black deposit or 
dirty oil in a distributor? 

468. Under what conditions of service will the trouble show up? 

469. What is the purpose of the so-called safety gap? 

470. What sound is made when the spark jumps this gap? 

471. What are the probable causes? 

472. Explain how to determine whether the spark occurs in the 
cylinder at the right time. 

473. Explain how to place a magneto on a four-cylinder engine 
and time and wire it. 

474. Why do we advance the spark lever to start an engine on the 
magneto and not on a battery system? 

MUFFLER. 

475. What is the purpose of a muffler or silencer? 

476. What is the effect when it becomes obstructed? 

477. What is the cause of muffler explosions? 

478. When a car is coasted down hill what precaution may be 
taken to prevent muffler explosions? 

479. What is the purpose of a cut-out valve? 

480. How much increase is there under ordinary running con¬ 
ditions over an efficient muffler? 

TROUBLE LOCATION. 

481. State order of procedure in identifying cause of failure of 
engine to start or of starting an engine which fails to start readily. 

482. If engine has been running properly and dies out with a 
little popping back, what is likely to be the cause ? 

483. If engine is warm and refuses to start, even when primed well 
and when the choke or primer has been used and there is a good 
spark, what is likely the trouble? 

484. What should be done to remedy the cause? 

485. If an engine hits all right except when running idle and 
then it is always the same cylinder which misses, what are some of 
the possible causes? 

486. How should a test be made for each cause? 

487. What is the purpose of spark gaps in locating trouble? 

488. If the carburetor adjustment is suspected, what should be 
done before the adjusting devices are tampered with or changed? 

489. If the engine runs well idle and when pulling slowly or at 
light load it gains speed or accelerates readily but dies out and pops, 
what trouble is indicated ? 

490. What is a temporary remedy? 

491. The permanent remedy? 

492. If the engine kicks when cranked, what trouble is to be sus¬ 
pected ? 


72 

493. If the engine lacks power and the radiator boils, what may be 
the cause? 

494. If the engine will not pull and there is poor compression in all 
cylinders, what may the trouble be ? 

495. Name the causes which might be responsible for missing on 
one cylinder only. 

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM. 

CLUTCH. 

496. What is the purpose of a clutch ? 

497. Name three common types of clutches. 

498. With what material is a cone clutch generally faced to give 
smoothness of engagement? 

499. What attention does this facing require ? 

500. What kind of oil is suitable? 

501. What is meant by “ dragging ” ? 

502. What is the remedy? 

503. What is meant by “ grabbing ”? 

504. What is done to make the action of a cone clutch more smooth ? 

505. What is the purpose of a clutch brake ? 

506. How far should the clutch pedal have to be pushed down 
before this clutch brake comes into action ? 

507. If no clutch brake is provided, what causes the gears and cone 
or disk to quit spinning when the pedal is held down ? 

508. Under what condition is a clutch most liable to slip? 

509. What is the result if it is allowed to slip ? 

510. What should be done if a clutch slips badly on high ? 

511. What attention does a three-plate clutch generally need when 
it drags? 

512. When it slips? 

513. What attention does a multiple disk clutch generally need 
when it slips? 

514. When it grabs? 

515. If such a clutch is made to run in oil and the oil is too stiff, 
w T hat will be the result ? 

516. What will be the result if a disk clutch is allowed to slip ? 

517. How should the throttle and the clutch pedal be used to 
allow a smooth start with a minimum of wear on the clutch ? 

518. What should be done with the clutch and throttle when the 
rear w T heels pass over an obstruction high enough or a depression 
deep enough to cause considerable spring deflection? 

519. Why is this necessary? 

520. What will be the result if it is neglected? 

521. What position should the throttle be in ’when the clutch is 
held out? 

522. Why? 

GEAR SET. 

523. What is the purpose of a transmission (called a gear set or 
gear box) ? 

524. How many different ratios are generally provided? 

525. What must be done with the clutch when the gears are to be 
shifted from one speed to another? 


73 


526. If the gears make a burring noise or clash when the shift is 
made, what will be the result? 

527. If they are shifted without the clutch being held down or re¬ 
leased properly, what may result? 

528. What are the three common locations for the gear box? 

529. From what kind of material are the sliding gears made in 
order that they may resist wear? 

530. What happens to the corners of the teeth if they are carelessly 
or unskillfully shifted? 

531. What are the properties of a lubricant suitable for use in a 
gear box? 

532. How much is needed? 

533. What is the result of overfilling? 

534. What will be the result if a stiff-bodied grease (stiff as cold 
butter) is used in the gear set? 

535. What advantage has graphite mixed with grease? 

536. What is the disadvantage of a low-grade graphite? 

537. State in order each and every operation which the driver 
should perform in starting the engine and getting the car under way 
until he is running in the highest speed. 

538. When the clutch is engaged in starting from a standstill in 
first speed, what precautions should be taken to prevent sudden 
engagement and jerking, stalling, or excessive wear on clutch facing? 

539. After the shift from first to second, or from second to third, 
how should the clutch be engaged? 

540. Should the clutch be engaged first or the throttle opened 


541. When the gears are to be shifted into a lower speed, should 
the clutch be pushed clear against the floor board or only far enough 
to release it? 


542. Why ? 

543. Should the throttle be open or closed on this shift ? 

544. Why ? 

545 Explain the double-pedal motion which a skilled driver uses in 
shifting on a truck or car where it is difficult to shift into a lower 


^546. Explain how to handle gears when clutch will not release 

at 547. Explain how to start an engine without a hand crank by 
means of the gears. 

548 Which gear should be used? . . , . 

549. If turning is to be done by hand on the rear wheel, what pre- 

raution should be taken to be safe? . . , , 

550. If car is coasting and gears are in first speed, what may be 

the result of sudden engagement of the clutch. 

UNIVERSAL JOINTS. 


551 What two types of universal joints are used in vehicles? 
OOL ’ J’, . .. -11 AfmAhi renuire ? 


552. 

553. 
tight ? 

554. 

555. 


VV Hat twu lYi/ro -- - . 

What attention do all joints made of metal require 
What attention do the metal housings require to keep them 


What attention may leather boots require? 

What kind of lubricant will be most satisfactory * 



74 


556. Why? 

557. Why are fabric or leather joints seldom used in the main pro¬ 
peller or drive shaft when they are used between engine and gear 
box? 

558. What attention do they require? 

559. What may there be in connection with them which will require 
lubrication ? 

560. What attention will the slip joint in the propeller or drive 
shaft require ? 

561. How often? 

GOVERNOR. 

562. What is the purpose of a governor ? 

563. What part or accessory of the engine is controlled by the 
governor ? 

564. When does it come into action ? 

565. How can the driver tell whether the governor is working? 

566. If it is not working or has been disconnected, what should be 
done? 

567. When? 

568. What is the result of running an engine at high rates of speed 
without any load ? 

569. If a governor-controlled throttle remains shut and prevents 
operation, what should be done? 

570. How is a governor generally arranged to make tampering 
unlikely ? 


i 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


Annual 

Report 

Bulletin 

No. 

1 . 

♦Bulletin 

No. 

2. 

Bulletin 

No. 

3. 

♦Bulletin 

No. 

4. 

Bulletin 

No. 

5. 

Bulletin 

No. 

6. 

♦Bulletin 

No. 

7. 

♦Bulletin 

No. 

8. 

♦Bulletin 

No. 

9. 

♦Bulletin 

No. 

10. 

♦Bulletin 

No. 

11. 

♦Bulletin 

No. 

12. 


for 1917. 

Statement of Policies. 

Training Conscripted Men for Service as Radio and Buzzer 
Operators in the United States Army (International Code.) 

Emergency Training in Shipbuilding—Evening and Part-Time 
Classes for Shipyard Workers. 

Mechanical and Technical Training for Conscripted Men (Air 
Division, U. S. Signal Corps). 

Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. 

Training of Teachers for Occupational Therapy for the Re¬ 
habilitation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. 

Emergency War Training for Motor-Truck Drivers and 
Chauffers. 

Emergency War Training for Machine-Shop Occupations, 
Blacksmithing, Sheet-Metal Working, and Pipe Fitting. 

Emergency War Training for Electricians, Telephone Repair¬ 
men, Linemen, and Cable Splicers. 

Emergency War Training for Gas-Engine, Motor-Car, and 
Motor-Cycle Repairmen. 

Emergency War Training for Oxy-Acetylene Welders. 

Emergency War Training for Airplane Mechanics—Engine 
Repairmen, Woodworkers, Riggers, and Sheet-Metal 
Workers. 


All communications should be addressed to 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. 

* Emergency war training for conscripted and enlisted men. 

(75) 


O 
































/~C /o*h5~ 

./far 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 


MEMBERS. 


David F. Houston, Chairman, 

Sca'ctary of Agriculture. 

William C, Redfield, 

Secretary of Commerce. 

William B. Wilson, 

Sea'etary of Labor. 

P. P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education. 


James P. Munroe, 

Manufacture and Commerce . 
Charles A. Greathouse, 

A griculture. 

Arthur E. Holder, 

Labor. 


executive staff. 


A. Prosser. Director. 


Layton S. Hawkins, 

Assistant Director for 

Agricultural Education. 
Lewis H Carris, 

Assistant Director for 

Industrial Education. 

F. G. Nichols, 

Assistant Director for 

Commercial Education. 


Josephine T. Berry, 

Assistant Director for Home 

Economics Education. 
Charles H. Winslow, 

Assistant Director for Research. 


All communications should be addressed to 


The Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, I). C. 


0. of D. 

MAP. 18 1913 






CONTENTS. 









Foreword. 

General purpose. 

Qualifications for admission to classes. 

Duration of course. 

Qualifications of instructors. 

Place of instruction. 

Standards of proficiency. 

Bibliography. 

Units of instruction for machine-shop occupations. 

Machine operators. 

Floor and bench hands. 

Toolmakers... 

Units of instruction for blacksmiths. 

Units of instruction for sheet-metal workers. 

Units of instruction for pipe fitters. 

Courses for machine operators. 

Lathe work... 

Unit M-l.—Plain turning. 

Unit M-2 .—Threading and mandrel work. 

Unit M-3.—Chuck and face plate work. 

Unit M-4.—Advanced work. 

Drill press work. 

Unit M-21.—Plain simple work, chiefly on vertical drill. 

Unit M- 22.—Advanced work on vertical or radial drill. 

Plainer work. 

Unit M-31.—Simple planer work. 

Unit M-S2.—Advanced planer work. 

Shaper. 

Unit M-41. 

Grinding. 

Unit M-51.—Tool grinding. 

Unit M-52.—Surface grinding. 

Unit M-53.—Automobile work.. 

Milling-machine work. 

Unit M-61.—Plain milling. 

Unit M-62.—Universal milling. 

Unit M-71.—Horizontal boring mill. 

Unit M-81.—Heavy lathe. 

Bench work. 

Unit M-91.—Elementary bench work. 

Unit M-92.—Babbitting. 

Unit M-93.—Taps and die3.. 

Unit M-94.—Gunsmith work. 

Unit M-95.—Riveting and peening. 

Unit M-9G.—General repair. 

Courses for toolmaking. 

Unit M-101.—General toolmaking. 

Unit M-102.—Testing. 

Equipment for machine shop. 

3 


Page 

5 

7 

7 

8 
8 
8 
S 
9 
9 
9 

9 
10 

10 
10 
10 
11 
11 

11 
1L 
12 

13 

14 

14 
Jo 
10 
Pi 
17 
17 

17 

18 

15 
I 9 

19 

20 
20 
21 
•v> 

23 

24 

24 

25 

26 
2(1 


29 

29 

30 

31 






















































4 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Courses for blacksmithing. 33 

Purpose. 33 

Methods of conducting class. 33 

Equipment...".. 33 

Unit B-l.—Fundamentals. 34 

Unit B-2.—Practice jobs. 35 

Unit B-3.—Steelwork. 36 

Unit B-4.—Steel welding. 37 

Unit B-5.—Advanced job work. 37 

Courses for sheet-metal working. 39 

Purpose....'..'............... 39 

Unit S-l.—Soldering.. 39 

Unit S-2.—Aviation work. 41 

Unit S-3.—Brazing. 42 

Unit S-4.—Sheet-metal patterns. 43 

Sheet-metal equipment. 44 

Course for pipe fitters_....... 45 

Purpose.. 45 

Method of Conducting class...... 45 

Unit P-1.—Pipe fitting. 45 

Oral instruction...... 45 

Shopwork. 46 

Pipe-fitting equipment. 48 

Publications of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. 48 





































FOREWORD. 


As has already been shown in previous bulletins of the Federal 
Board for Vocational Education, there is a critical and constantly 
growing need for many thousands of mechanics and technicians for 
Army occupations carried on in and behind the lines of the United 
States Army. Many of these workers, already experienced in similar 
occupations of civil life, will he secured through the draft and possibly 
through voluntary enlistment. It is recognized by those in a posi¬ 
tion to know that the quotas thus gained will not bo sufficient, and 
that it will be necessary to give special training to many thousands 
of men for various occupations and in various ways. The War 
Department has taken definite steps to provide for this training 
systematically through Army schools and in some instances at can¬ 
tonments, but largely at the industrial, trade, and engineering schools 
of the country'. 

For some months the Federal board has been making intensive 
investigations and studies of the demands of these Army occupations. 
A series of bulletins for the guidance of those giving this training has 
resulted from these studies. The courses and methods suggested in 
these bulletins have been carefully checked by experienced Army 
officers and represent the consensus of opinion as to what training 
should be given and how it should be given. 

A list of all the bulletins thus far published and in progress of pub¬ 
lication is given on page 48 of this bulletin, those dealing with the 
war emergency training of conscripted and enlisted men being 
starred. Persons desiring to secure copies of any or all of these 
bulletins can readily do so by applying to the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education, Ouray Building, 805 G Street NW., Washing¬ 
ton, D. C. 

This Bulletin is the fourth in the series. It w T as preceded by 
Bulletin No. 2 on radio and buzzer operators, Bulletin No. 4 on 
mechanical and technical training for conscripted men in the Air 
Division of the United States Signal Corps, and Bulletin No. 7, on 
motor-truck drivers and chauffeurs. These three bulletins were 
issued to meet the need for trained men in the United States Signal 
Corps, and they might be called u service bulletins/’ as contrasted 
with 11 occupational bulletins.” The other bulletins in this scries 
were written to meet the need of training men for an occupation 
or occupations within any or all of the different branches of the 
service. 


0 



(.) EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


The first two bulletins dealt entirely with the need of trained men 
for specific occupations in the Signal Corps. Now that the needs of 
the other branches of the service have been charted and the work of 
training is being put on a definite and systematic basis, it will be 
possible to establish training schemes to fit men for an occupation in 
a number of different branches of the service, leaving to the War 
Department the task of distributing these men after they have been 
trained. In this way the specific needs and requests of the-different 
branches of the Army for the same kind of trained men will be equi¬ 
tably met. ft is expected that the courses and methods suggested 
in these bulletins will form the basis of practically all the training 
given under Army auspices for practically all of the occupations 
dealt with in the bulletins. 

The purpose of the courses outlined in this and other bulletins can 
not be emphasized too strongly. They are war emergency courses 
in the fullest meaning of the word. They are not trade courses in 
the sense that they attempt in any measure to prepare men for 
recognized trades and occupations as carried on in civil life. They 
are short, brief, direct courses of instruction designed to fit men in a 
great emergency to meet the specific demands of processes and opera¬ 
tions carried on by an army under war conditions, which in many 
cases approximate the demands and requirements of similar work in 
civilian occupations. 

Men taking this kind of training should not be led to believe that 
they are learning a trade. They are serving their country by learning 
to do a special job well, though to some extent this training may be 
beneficial to them in after life. 

These courses were prepared by K. G. Smith, J. H. Gill, and R. A. 
Leavell, special agents of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, 
under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, assistant director for 
research. 

Acknowledgment for valuable suggestions is made to Army officers 
in the Signal Corps, the Quartermaster Corps, the Engineer Corps, the 
Coast Artillery Corps, and the Ordnance Department; to the members 
of the Committee on Classification, Division of Tests, Adjutant Gen¬ 
eral's Office, and to specialists in charge of the mechanical repair shops 
of the Army. 


EMERGENCY WAR TRAINING 


FOR 

MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS, BLACKSMITHING, SHEET-METAL WORK¬ 
ING, AND PIPE FITTING. 


G ENERAL PUR POSE. 

Hie following outlines constitute courses of training for machine 
operators, floor and bench hands, toolmakers, blacksmiths, pipe fitters 
and sheet-metal workers. All-around mechanics can not be trained 
in short intensive courses. Specialists on certain machines and 
processes can be trained in such courses, however, and it is for training 
specialists that these outlines are intended to be used. 

QUALIFICATIONS FOR ADMISSION TO C LASSES. 

.Any man possessing mechanical ability may enroll in some one of 
the special “unit courses.” Experience is, of course, desirable and 
will enable a man to take more advanced work suited to his attain¬ 
ments. The following are suggested as standard requirements in the 
machine operators’ courses: 

1. A man without extensive mechanical experience may begin with 
the first unit on lathe, drill press, planer, shaper, milling machine, or 
bench work. 

2. A man may begin with any one of the units on grinding, but 
would need careful instruction on micrometers and gauges, and 
manipulation of the machine. 

3. A man desiring to take heavy lathe work should have had Units 
M-l and M-2 of lathe work or equivalent training. 

4. A man desiring to take horizontal boring-mill work should have 
had experience on a lathe and drill press, and if possible on a planer 
as well. 

5. In case a vertical boring mill is available, a man should have 
Units M-l and M-2 of lathe work or equivalent training as a pre¬ 
requisite. General machine-shop experience is desirable for the man 
electing to take work on the automatic screw machine, turret lathe, 
or gear cutter. 

Special requirements for other courses arc given in the text in 
connection with the course concerned. 

In case a man wishes to begin with the more advanced work in 
any course, the instructor must exercise care and judgment in select¬ 
ing the units best fitted to his needs. It is far better for a man to 
bemn with work which he can do with ease and confidence than to 
attempt that which is too difficult for him. 


7 



8 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

DURATION OF COURSE. 

The length of time required to complete any unit depends on the 
amount of work to be covered, the man’s ability, and his previous 
experience. The time given to any unit or lesson should include not 
only the time needed actually to perform the operations, but the 
time required for the necessary repetition to give skill and confidence. 
Naturally this time must vary with the man’s ability and experience, 
and only a general estimate can be made. The requisite number of 
hours of work may be given either in day or evening classes. If the 
work is given in evening classes only, it may be desirable to omit 
some of the lessons and thereby shorten the training period. When 
this is done, omissions should be noted on the record card. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF INSTRUCTORS. 

The instructor or instructors in charge of this work should be men 
of practical experience and able and willing to impart their informa¬ 
tion. It is not enough that a man be a skilled mechanic. He must 
in addition possess or develop teaching ability. It is suggested that 
the men conducting the course, if without previous teaching expe¬ 
rience, read carefully some of the texts listed in the bibliography 
furnished by the Federal Board for Vocational Education on request. 

PLACE OF INSTRUCTION. 

Excellent facilities for conducting such instruction as is here 
outlined are found in connection with trade, engineering and tech¬ 
nical schools. In some cases it may be possible, and even necessary, 
to utilize the equipment of a commercial plant, especially when 
either the equipment or material to work upon is expensive, special, 
or difficult to obtain, and therefore to be found only in a commercial 
plant. The ordinary equipment necessary is that of the shop or 
trade school. 

STANDARDS OF PROFICIENCY. 

It must be remembered that the purpose of these courses is not 
merely to teach men how certain operations are performed; their pur¬ 
pose is to teach men to perform these and similar operations with their 
own hands with speed and confidence. Therefore it is not enough 
that the student merely do the work called for in one unit. lie 
must repeat this some work , or similar work , until in the judgment of 
his instructor he is considered capable in that particular class of work. 
Aside from developing skill on these special operations, effort should 
be made to develop mechanical judgment. It is not necessary that 
the exact projects here outlined be performed. Equivalent work 
adapted to the machine and tool equipment that is available may 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 9 

be given, but the definite aim of developing skill in these special 
operations should not be lost sight of and a general course substituted. 

Some work in blue-print reading and sketching may be given, but 
should not be allowed to interfere with the main object of the course, 
which is to develop manipulative skill. Not more than 10 per cent 
of the time should be devoted to this work. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

A suggested bibliography of suitable text books and pamphlets for 
each course has been prepared by the Research Division and may be 
obtained by addressing the Federal Board for Vocational Education, 
Ouray Building, Washington, D. C. 

UNITS OF INSTRUCTION FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

Machine operators. —The courses for machine operators outlined in 
this bulletin are divided into units, as follows: 

Lathe: 

M-l.—Plain turning. 

M-2.—Threading and mandrel work. 

M-3.—Chuck and face plate work. 

M-4.—Advanced work. 

Drill press: 

M-21.—Plain simple work, chiefly on vertical drill. 

M-22.—Advanced work on vertical or radial drill. 

Planer: 

M-31.—Simple planer work. 

M-32.—Advanced planer work. 

Shaper: 

M-43. 

Grinder: 

M-51.—Tool grinding. 

M-52.—Surface grinding. 

M-53.—Automobile work. 

Milling machine: 

M-Gl.—Plain milling. 

M-62.—Universal milling. 

Horizontal boring mill: 

M-71. 

Heavy lathe: 

M-81. 

In case a vertical boring mill, automatic screw machine, gear 
cutter, or turret lathe is available, work on these machines may be 

given. , 

Floor and bench hands— The course for floor and bench hands is 

divided into four units, as follows: 

M-91—Elementary bench work. 

M-92.—Babbitting. 

M-93.—Tap and die work. 

M-94.—Riveting and peening. 

43400°—18-2 


10 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


Toolmakers. —The course for toolmakers is divided into two units, 
as follows: 

M-101.—General toolmaking. 

M-102.—Testing. • ■ 

UNITS OF INSTRUCTION FOR BLACKSMITHS. 

The course for blacksmiths is divided into five units, as follows: 

B-l. —Fundamentals. 

B-2.—Practice jobs. 

B-3.—Steel work. 

B-4.—Steel welding. 

B-5.—Ad vanced practice jobs. 

UNITS OF INSTRUCTION FOR SHEET-METAL WORKERS. 

The course for sheet-metal workers is divided into four units, as 
follows: 

S-l.—Soldering. 

S-2.—Special airplane work. 

S-3.—Brazing. 

S-4.—Sheet-metal pattern cutting. 

UNITS OF INSTRUCTION FOR PIPE FITTERS. 

The course for pipefitters contains one unit, P-1. 








COURSES FOR MACHINE OPERATORS. 


LATHE WORK. 

Unit M-l.— Plain Turning. 

Oral instruction: Care, cleaning and oiling of lathe. Proper center¬ 
ing for accurate work. 

Lesson 1. 

Stock, mild steel, g to 1 inch diameter. Finish over all first to accu¬ 
rate length, then to diameter shown on sketch, sample, or blue print. 
Note the result if the live center is not running true. Grind the 
centers. 

Lesson 2. 

Stock, mild steel, J to } inch diameter. Turn to accura te length and 
diameter and face shoulder square, e. g., blank bolts. 

Lesson 3. 


Stock, mild steel, J to 1J inch. Taper turning, 
attachment. 


Lesson 4- 


Taper by taper 


Taper turning by setting over tail-stock center. Fit taper plug 
to a reamed taper hole, e. g., No. 3 drill socket. Give instruction 
and practice in resetting tail-stock center in line for straight turning. 

Lesson 5 . 


Face at an acute angle by use of compound rest. See that the 
angle is accurate, e. g. gas engine valves. Test with protractor and 
bevel. 

Unit M-2.—Threading and Mandrel Work. 

Lesson 1. 

Oral instruction: Threads, kinds and standards; change gears; 
thread-cutting compounds. Thread cutting, V or U. S. Standard 
threads. Grind tools to fit thread gauge. Calculation of change 
gears. Catch the thread by reversing the lathe. Catch the thread 
by running the carriage back by hand without stopping the lathe 
when cutting a multiple of the lead screw. Catch the thread by the 
index on carriage of some lathes. 

Practice cutting threads to fit standard nuts \ to 1 inch. 



12 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


Lesson 2. 

Thread cutting V., U. S. S. and A. L. A. M. and pipe threads. Cut 
pipe threads by backing out tool by hand to get taper. Cut threads 
feeding tool in compound rest. 

Lesson 3. 

Practice in miscellaneous thread cutting. 

Unit M-3.— Chuck and Face Plate Work. 

Lesson L 

Oral instruction: Chucks, centering and use of lathe tester. Chuck 
castings or forgings and face surfaces flat. 

Lesson 2. 

Boring. Chuck work, centering by cored hole or punched center. 
Bore to size and uniform diameter. Drill in the solid by use of drill 
holder. Ream holes to size. 

Bore cored holes to size for a short distance to guide the drill 
which is to follow. Make small bushings. 

Lesson 3. 

Bore taper holes using taper attachment. 

Lesson 4- 

Bore taper holes using compound rest (limited to shallow holes) 
e. g., hole in flange for pipe tap. 

Lesson 5 . 

Face at an angle using compound rest. 

Lesson 6. 

Face plate work. Give oral instruction on mounting and inside 
thread cutting. Fit threads by calipers and plug thread gauges. 

Lesson 7. 

Turn gas engine valve stems and face valves. 

Practice must be given whenever possible in emergency repair 
work to develop resourcefulness. 



1 3 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

To indicate the class of work done in a mobile repair unit, the 
following list of equipment is added: 

1 special 12-inch lathe. 

1 generator set, 

3 electric drills. 

1 hand drill. 

1 tool post grinder. 

1 bench grinder. 

1 portable forge. 

1 anvil. 

I nit M 4.- Advanced Work. 

Lesson /. 


Turn long pieces 
or follow rests. 


between centers necessitating use nf steadv 
Lesson 2. 


Sliding, driving, running, press, and shrink tils. Turn pieces 
to micrometer measurements or to gauge and fit accurately. 

Lesson 3. 


Turning on offset centers. Locate the centers so as to insure 
that the offset center line is parallel with and the proper distance 
from the main center line. Hough out and finish a single throw 
crank shaft. Avoid springing by pressure between centers. U>c 
of counterweight to preserve balance. 

Lesson 4 . 

Rebore gas-engine cylinders, in chuck or in cradle on the carriage, 
with boring bar. Use care to avoid springing tlie cylinder in 
clamping. 

Lesson 5. 


Turn pistons to fit. cylinders: Have piston walls uniform in thick¬ 
ness; ring grooves must be accurate and made to fit standard rings; 
piston pins at right angles to the axis of the cylinder. Use fixtures 
to hold pistons. 

Lesson 6. 


Piston rings. Chuck the tub; bore, turn, and cut off rings, face 
or grind to proper width, cut, compress in fixture, turn or grind to 
size, fit to cylinder, allow for expansion at joint. Explain the use 
of a magnetic chuck. Concentric and eccentric rings. 


14 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

Lesson 7. 

Pulleys. Bore and turn pulleys, keyseat in lathe with tool in 
tool post and used as a hand shaper. 

Oral instruction: Soft metal turning, lubricants, cutting speeds, 
belt lacing. 

Lesson 8. 

Miscellaneous repair jobs for practice. 

DRILL-PRESS WORK. 

Unit M-21.— Plain, Simple Work, Chiefly on Vertical Drill. 

Lesson 1. 

Oral instruction: Drills, kinds and use of each; grinding angles; 
speed for different metals; locating holes to be drilled; center punch; 
use of witness marks. 

Drill presses: Care, oiling, speeds, feeds. 

Locate and drill holes according to sketch or blue print. See that 
drill is properly ground to give round hole, standard size, proper 
location; considerable practice will be required. Proper method 
of outlining the hole and drawing the drill is essential. 

Lesson 2. 

Drill a series of holes in fixed relation to each other; e.g.,bolt holes 
in cylinder head, hole for studs in cylinder, holes in a pipe flange. 

Lesson 3. 

Taps and tapping. Learn where to find the tap-drill sizes, for the 
taps between \ and 1 inch, U. S. Std. and A. L. A. M. Tap nuts, 
taking care to have the tap perpendicular to the face of the nut. 
Learn by “feel” how much a tap will stand. 

Lesson 4- 

Tap stud holes with the machinist’s hand taps, finishing with the 
bottoming tap. Use extreme caution not to break the tap when it 
strikes bottom. 

Methods of removing studs and broken taps. Use of stud nut 
and “EZ out” tools. Drilling out studs. 

Lesson 5. 

Drill small steel and cast-iron pieces which are difficult to hold 
either by hand or with clamps. 


15 


EMERGENCY TRAINING P'OR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

Lesson 6. 

Drilling holes at other than a right angle to the surface. Special 
practice in clamping work is important^ Work must be held securely 
but must not be distorted. Drill holes where they run into holes 
already drilled. Often necessary to plug the first hole. 

Lesson 7. 

Oral instructions: Drill jigs; lubricants: 

Heating—especially when drilling thin plates or hard metal. 
Grinding drills for brass and other soft metals to avoid their drawing 
too fast. 

Use of breast drill and portable electric drill. 

Lesson 8. 

Special drilling jobs, reaming, countersinking, drilling with small 

drills. 

In this unit the student should pay particular attention to work 
done on the upright drill rather than on the radial drill. 

Unit M-22.— Advanced Work on Vertical or Radial Drill. 

Lesson 1. 


Cutting out stock with small drills; e. g., crank pin of a forged 
crank shaft. 

Lesson 


Tapping on the drill press. Tap holes in which tap may bo run 
through and also those in which bottoming tap must be used. Tap¬ 
ping attachment. 

Lesson 8. 

Use of counterbores and spot-facing tools. 

Tjesson 4- 

Use of boring heads, boring liars, and special tools. 

Lesson 5. 

Use of dies split and solid. Pipe dies and taps. The amount 
to allow for “take up” of pipe threads of various sizes. Use of small 
machine screws, taps, and dies. 


16 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

Lesson 6. 

Miscellaneous drill-press work. Bore cylinders with special boring 
head. 

(Note. —Much practice is required on each group of work. Good 
work quickly done with a minimum of spoiled work should be the 
aim.) 

PLANER WORK. 

Unit M-31 involves only the very simplest planing operations and 
could be taken by any man having no experience on a planer. 

Unit M-32 involves more difficult planing operations and may be 
taken only by a man who has had sufficient experience to give him a 
good understanding of planer operations and planer tools. 

Unit M-31.— Simple Planer Work. 

Lesson 1. 

Oral instruction: Care, cleaning, oiling feeds, stops, speed (if 
variable speed planer is available), clamps, straps, stop pins, tools; 
blocking work, care necessary so as not to distort the piece; methods 
of holding work so as to allow a continuous cut over the entire sur¬ 
face; importance of slacking clamps on large pieces after roughing 
cut, to allow internal strains to adjust themselves; clamp lightly and 
carefully for finishing. 

Surface flat pieces. Support the work well under each clamping 
bolt. Have solid stops to take thrust of tool. Rough and finish 
cut. 

Lesson 2. 

Keys eats in shafting. Use of V blocks; drill holes at each end of 
keyway in which to stop the tool; adjust stops carefully and see that 
belts are tight in order to stop table accurately. 

Lesson 3. 

Surface work involving vertical cuts. Set over clapper box to 
prevent drag of tool on return stroke. 

Lesson 4 . 

Slotting and undercutting as in T slots. Care in lifting tool on 
return stroke is very necessary to avoid breaking. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 17 

Unit M-32 —Advanced Planer Work 

Lesson 1. 

0 ml instruction: Angle plates and fixtures; use of squares, gauges, 
measuring instruments, and templates. 

Angle cuts as in V’s and other guides; use of templates and gauges 
fitting two sliding parts together. 

Lesson 2 . 

Use of formed tools. Make special shaped tools to finish special 
surfaces; design tools to avoid chattering. 

Lesson 3. 

Use of overhang tools to reach spots not accessible with tool in the 
tool post in the usual way. 

Lesson 4 . 

Make a set of elevating blocks to use on an 18-inch lathe or larger. 

(Note. —Planer work requires much time in clamping. Sequence 
of operations is important. The job should bo studied and the 
work planned so as to involve the least number of changes in the 
setting and the least number of changes of tools. The piece should 
be chucked so as to equalize the stock to be taken off and insure the 
finished piece to be of proper size. If the piece will not finish from 
the rough stock, find it out before any work is done.) 

SHAPER. 

Unit M-41, 

Lesson 1, 

Oral instruction: Advantage of shaper over planer for special work; 
positive length of stroke; care, cleaning, oiling, adjustment, and 
tools. 

Surfacing flat plates held in shaper vise; roughing and finishing 
cuts; chattering. 

Lesson 2. 

Keyseating shafts. Drill holes at each end of the kcyscat in which 
to start and stop the cut. 

Lesson 3. 

Surfacing faces at right angles to each other using*vertical and 
horizontal feeds, e. g., make small angle plates. Finish edges square 
and parallel. Test with machinist's square. 

43460°—18-3 


18 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


Lesson 4. 

Making angle cuts by swinging the head to the required angle, e. g., 
V blocks for drill press and planer work. Set over clapper box to 
prevent drag of tool on return stroke. 

Lesson 5. 

T slots and undercutting, e. g., fit two sliding parts together with 
T slot, V or dovetail. 

Lesson 6. 

Overhang tools. Keyseating of pulleys. 

Lesson 7 .' 

Formed tools. Cutting of racks or other special work. (It is 
often possible to use a change gear of a lathe as an index plate on the 
feed screw and so do an emergency job of spacing. Ingenuity in 
emergency work is to be cultivated.) 

Lesson 8. 

Work fastened to knee of shaper with vise removed. (Skill in 
mounting is to be developed.) 

GRINDING. 

Unit M-51 of the following course is for the operator of a com¬ 
paratively light tool grinding machine for tool-room work. Unit 
M-52 requires special equipment and deals with surface grinding only. 
Unit M-53 is for specialists on automobile work. Any one of these 
units may be taken by a novice but experience on a lathe or milling 
machine is an advantage. 

Unit M-51. —Tool Grinding. 

Lesson 1. 

Oral instruction: Care, oiling, cleaning, adjustments, and feeds. 
Selection of wheels; cooling compounds; use of micrometers; proper 
mounting of wheels; guards and safety appliances. Grinding plain 
cylindrical parts, soft steel and iron; alignment of centers. Have 
wheels true and in balance. 


Lesson 2. 

Lap centers of mandrels, boring bars, and other tools which are to 
be run on centers. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 19 

Lesson 3 . 

Grind hardened steel parts such as mandrels and bushings for jigs. 

Lesson 4 . 

Oral instruction: Gauges and measuring tools; internal grinding. 
Internal grinding of cutters and jig bushings. 

Lesson 5. 

Taper grinding such as shanks of drills, end mills, etc. 

T^esson 6. 

Oral instruction: Cutter and reamer grinding; clearance of drills, 
reamers, and milling cutters. Grinding straight fluted reamers both 
standard and taper. 

Lesson 7. 

Grinding spiral cutters and end mills 

Lesson 8. 

Grinding distance rods, limit, and other gauges 

lesson 9. 

Grinding gear cutters and other formed cutters. 

Unit M-52. —Surface Grinding. 

Lesson 1. 

Oral instruction: Surface grinding; warping; magnetic chucks: 
selection of wheels and accurate dressing of same. Grinding plates 
and Hat surfaces; methods of holding work by clamping fingers so 
that the whole surface may be covered by the wheel; use magneti 
chucks if available. Use extreme care to avoid springing the work. 

Unit M-53. —Automobile Work. 

Lesson 1 

Grinding piston rings to accurate width. (Proper chucks or fix¬ 
tures must bo available.) 

I^esson 2. 

Grinding piston rings to fit cylinders. To do this the rings must 
be cut, compressed, and held in a suitable fixture. 


20 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


Lesson 3. 

Grinding crank shafts, crank pins, and internal grinding of cyl¬ 
inders. (This requires special equipment.) 

Lesson 4 . 

Grinding pistons to size after roughing out on lathe. Allow for 
expansion when in service, 0.001 inch per inch of diameter at the 
crank end and 0.0015 inch per inch of diameter at the head end. 
Aluminum pistons require 1.5 times as much allowance as cast iron. 
Aluminum pistons are not ground. 

Lesson 5. 

Lapping pistons and rings into cylinder. 

MILLING MACHINE WORK. 

Milling machine work is here divided into two units. Unit M-61 
consists of plain milling, including the use of fixtures prepared to 
hold the piece to be milled. Such work may be done by a novice. 
Unit M-62 is more advanced involving complicated indexing, accurate 
measurement, and careful calculation of gear ratios and angles. 

Unit M-61.— Plain Milling. 

Lesson 1. 

Oral instruction: Care of the machine; caution about accidents 
such as keeping brush, fingers, waste, etc., away from the entering 
side of a revolving cutter; caution about mutilating slides, table, or 
other parts of machine thus destroying its accuracy; instruction in 
reading graduated feed screws. Surface milling with plain cutters. 

Lesson 2. 

Cutting key ways in shaft mounted in vise or fastened to the table. 
Use plain milling cutter. 

Lesson 3. 

Cutting key ways in shaft with an end mill. Start mill in a drilled 
hole. Guard against chips clogging the cutter. 

Lesson J^. 

Spot facing castings or forgings with an end mill. Counterbore 
holes with a sweep cutter having a pilot. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOll MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 21 
Lesson 5. 

1 aco milling; use of solid or built up face mills as in facing gas 
engino cylinder castings for manifold connections; milling of pieces 
held in fixtures. 

Lesson 6. 


Milling tangs on taps, reamers, and drills with 
or straddle mills. 


Lesso n 7. 


plain cutters, end 


Fluting taps and milling cutters having straight teeth. 

Lesson 8. 


Spur gear cutting by direct or plain indexing. 

Lesson 9. 


Slotting with slitting saw. 

Unit M-62.— Universal Milling. 

The man taking unit M-62 of milling machine work should have had 
Unit M-61 or its equivalent and in addition two years’ experience in 
general machine work. 

Lesson 1. 

Spur gear cutting, large size requiring the use of the vertical feed. 

Lesson 2. 


Spur gear 
indexing. 


and bevel cutting requiring compound or differential 
Lesson 3. 


Cutting spur and radial teeth on end mills. 

Lessons J+ and 5. 

Lessons 4 and 5 milling helical teeth on cutters, reamers, and fluting 
twist drills. 

Lesson 6. 

Cutting a worm hob. Back off teeth with a file. 

Lesson 7. 

Machine a worm wheel blank. Gash this blank with a gear cutter 
and then hob with the hob made in lesson 6. 


22 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

* 

Lesson 8. 

Explain circular and diametrical pitch. Cut a short section of a 
rack to gear with a selected spur gear. 

Lesson 9. 

Graduate a straight edge. 

Lesson 10. 

Graduate a circle in degrees. 

Lesson 11. 

Use of gang mills for special milling jobs. 

Lessons 12, IS, 1/+, and 15. 

Miscellaneous milling as called for in connection with tool work and 
making jigs and fixtures. 

(Note.— The milling machine operator should have Unit M-51 of 
grinding if possible.) 

Unit M-71.— Horizontal Boring Mill. 

Much of the work that is adapted to the horizontal boring mill is 
often done on a heavy lathe. The course on 11 engine lathe” or its 
equivalent should be required as a prerequisite. 

Lesson 1. 

Mount connecting rod forgings on a proper fixture, bore and face. 

Lesson 2. 

Bore wrist pin holes in gas-engine pistons. Face the bosses. 
These holes must be so located that the piston will finish with its axis 
perpendicular through the center of the pin. 

Lesson 3. 


Face a cylinder block for the manifolds and other flange connec¬ 
tions. 

Lesson 4- 

Bore a cylinder that is open at both ends. Use the boring bar 
supported by the out-board bearing. 

Lesson 5. 


Bore a block of cylinders, open at each end as in Lesson 4. Be 
very careful to get the center distances correct, and bores parallel. 


KMKKCKNCY TRA1NIN0 FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 23 


Lesson 6. 

Bore a cylinder with closed head. 

Lesson 7. 

Bore a block of cylinders with closed head. 

(Note. —In all work on gas-engine parts it is important that the 
bore be concentric with the outside. Much practice work for the 
boring mill operator can be selected from work going on in the shop.) 

Unit M SI Heavy Latiie. 

(18-inch or larger.) 

This work presupposes that the man has had unit (M-l) and 
(M-2) of lathe work or its equivalent. 

Lesson 1. 

Oral instruction: Heavy work requires heavy centers to carry the 
wY>rk and resist the tool pressure. A heavy lubricant on the dead 
center is demanded. White or red lead or graphite is often used. 
Turn and finish a heavy shaft between centers. File finish. Have 
the work turn several times for each stroke of the file. Avoid too 
high a speed in filing work or the file will bo glazed. 

Lesson 2. 

Chuck a pulley casting. (Avoid springing the rim.) Face the hub, 
bore, turn the rim as far as possible, then reverse in the chuck and 
finish. If necessary, finish on a mandrel. All large pulleys must be 
driven near the circumference to prevent chattering. 

Lesson 3. 

Mount a chuck. The plate is to be fitted to the spindle of the lathe 
and the chuck fit made on the lathe where the chuck is to be used. 

Lesson 4- 

Finish a pipe llange for 4-inch pipe or over. Taper the thread 
with taper attachment or by use of the cross feed screw. Rough 
face the flange with coarse feed, leaving the tool marks to hold the 
gasket. Strike the bolt-hole circle while the flange h in the lathe. 

I^esson 5. 

Thread a tee or ell fitting for 4-inch pipe or over. 


24 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


Lesson 6. 

Chuck and bore a gas-engine cylinder. Ream with a standard 
reamer. 


Lesson 7. 

Turn a crank shaft forging. Fit the offset centers and finish the 
crank pin. 

Lesson 8. 

Bore a crank case or cylinder with a boring bar between centers. 
BENCH WORK. 

Unit M-91.— Elementary Bench Work. 


Oral instruction: Talks on files—shapes, cuts, and uses, 
shapes, grinding, uses. 


Lesson 1. 


Chisels— 


Dismantle, clean, and reassemble a simple machine, e. g., a small 
drill press. Mark the parts that must go together exactly as before. 
Keep parts together in box or tote pan so none will be lost. If any 
repairs are necessary report it to the instructor. 

Lesson 2. 

Chip and clean castings as they come from the foundry; use of 
rubbing brick, cutting off sprues, risers, and scabs. 

Lesson 3. 

Chip and file a cast-iron block, 3 by 4 inches or other convenient 
size, to a flat surface as shown by straight edge. 

Lesson 4 . 

Chip wrought iron to a required shape, e. g., a boiler patch. 

Lesson 5. 


Chip a keyway at the end of a piece of shafting, file the keyway to 
line, and fit a key to the same. 

Lesson 6. 

Cut sheet metal by using a vise as one jaw of a shear and a cold 
chisel as the other jaw; e. g., cut out and file to shape a regular 
hexagon yg inch thick and 3 inches across the flats. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 25 

Lesson 7. 

Practice with hand reamers, drifts, and broaches. Standard taper 
reamers for taper pins. Cut a keyway in a pulley with a mandrel and 
broach. Remove a pulley from a shaft by drifting out the key. 

Unit M-92. —Babbitting. 

Lesson 1. 

Oral instruction: Babbitting—equipment; heating of babbitt; 
preheating of the work, prevention of blowholes; babbitting -olid 
and split boxes; scrapers and scraping; marking material: fitting 
limes. Babbitt a split box used for shafting. Scrape to a good bear¬ 
ing. Chip good oil grooves and drill oil holes. 

Lesson 2. 

Babbitt a solid box. Smoke the mandrel or coat it with graphite 
before pouring the babbitt. Babbitt an automobile connecting rod 
box. 

Lesson 3. 

Draw file a journal which has been scored and refit it to the bearing. 

Unit M-93.— Taps and Dies. 

Lesson 1. 

Cut threads and bolts and tap nuts with hand taps and dies. 
Use care to get the threads square. 

Oral instruction: Standard threads, V, U. S. S., A. L. A. M. ; 
square, 29°, Whitworth; tap drill sizes, double depth of V threads, 
drifts, and broaches. 

Lesson 2. 

Tap holes in castings. Square the tap carefully. Use extreme 
care in tapping holes with bottoms. 

Lesson 3. 

Remove broken studs, screws, and taps—back out with punch; 
drill and use “EZ out” tools; or drill, and back out with a square 
punch. It is often necessary to draw the temper of a tap and drill 
it out. 

Lesson 4- 

Use of small machine screw taps and dies. Learn to tell by the 
“feel” how much a tap will stand. Use care to avoid breaking when 
backing out the tap. 


26 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

Lesson o. 

Fit a patch over a hole in a cylinder-jacket wall. Drill, tap, and 
fasten the patch in place with cap screws, using a gasket between the 
cylinder and patch. Use care in tapping and tightening the screws 
in the thin cast iron. 

Unit M-94.— Gunsmith Work. 

Oral instruction on files and chisels under M-91. 

Lesson 1. 

Dismantle, clean, and reassemble a bicycle, including the coaster 
brake. Adjust all bearings and pack in vaseline. 

Lesson 2. 

Dismantle an Army rifle and clean thoroughly, including the 
breech mechanism. 


Lesson 3. 

Chip and file as in lesson 2, Unit M--91. 

Lesson 4- 

See lesson 3, Unit M-91. After chipping and filing the block 
polish with emery, and oil. Use care not to destroy the flat surface 
at the corners. 

Lesson 5. 

File a number of keys to fit various kinds of locks. Duplicate 
various parts of locks. 

Lesson 6. v 

Wind open and closed springs from small spring wire. Wind 
small springs from annealed spring wire and later temper and test 
them. 

Lesson 7. 

Make flat springs such as are used in gun locks. 

Lesson 8. 

Drill and tap various sizes of holes for machine screws, particularly 
the smaller sizes. Learn by “feel” how much a small tap will stand. 
Use extreme care, with small taps, that they are not broken when 
backing them out or when bottoming. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 27 


Lesson 9. 

Pill two plates together with standard taper pins. Use care in 
drilling and reaming to have the pins perpendicular to the plates. 

Lesson 10. 

File pins of various small sizes and shapes whero the hand vise and 
a filing block is used. 

Lesson 11. 

Reduce a 12 by 24 machine screw thread to a 10 by 24 thread with 
a three-cornered file and hand vise. 


Lesson 12. 

Caseharden small screws, nuts, and other parts by use of cyanide. 
(Note. —Caution students against using taps or dies on parts that 
may have been casehardcned before trying the picco with a file.) 

Unit M-95.— Riveting and Peening. 

Lesson 1 . 


Straighten rolled shapes by peening, 


frame. 


Lesson 2. 


e. g., the parts of an auto 


fib 

Riveting. Repair of fenders. Use a light hammer for riveting 
and a heavier hammer for upsetting. Calking. 


Unit M-96.— General Repair. 


Lessons 3 , and 5. 

Overhaul one or more gas engines. Clean thoroughly, babbitt the 
rods if necessary, set the timing gears, grind in the valves, and put 
in good shape. 

Lessons 6 and 7. 

Overhaul an auto engine and repair where necessary. 

(Note. —In some work two men can work together to advantage.) 










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,i £ ; 














COURSES FOR TOOLMAKING. 


Toolmaking is highly skilled work and the number of toolmakers 
needed by the Army is small. Before taking up toolmaking a man 
should have had at least three years’ experience as a general machinist. 
The following outline of work presupposes that the man has a good 
working knowledge of hand and machine tools and measuring instru¬ 
ments and that he understands and can work from drawings. 

The course is intended to be suggestive and the instructor should 
pick out, from the lessons given, projects that are suited to the 
knowledge and skill of the student and to the available shop equip¬ 
ment. The shop may need certain tools and fixtures which the 
student can make. The choice of projects is left to the instructor. 

Unit M-101.— General Toolmaking. 

Lesson 1. 

Mandrels: Unless for special purpose have the design conform to 
standard practice as to length, taper, ends, and centers. 

Lesson 2. 

Make two or more nut mandrels for facing standard nuts. 

Lessons 3 and 

Make milling machine and drill collets and collets to adapt morse 
taper to B. and S. taper and vice versa. 

Lesson 5. 

Make special taps, e. g., taps to thread cored holes in a water 
jacket or for plugs over valves in gas engine cylinders. 

Lesson 6. 

Make special mill for valve seats or other work. Make counter¬ 
bores for special work. 

Lesson 7. 

Make a simple drill jig for one or two holes in some part that must 
be interchangeable. Use standard hardened steel bushings. 

Lessons 8 and 9. 

Make an accurate drill jig with two or more holes. Boro the holes 
on the milling machine or lathe, using buttons and micrometer calipers 
to locate the holes. 


29 


30 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 
Lessons 10 and 11. 

Make fixtures for compressing and clamping piston rings for out¬ 
side grinding. 

Lesson 12. 

Make a boring bar with hardened steel double end cutter. 

Lesson 13. 

Make an end mill for use in a milling machine or lathe. 

Lessons H and 15. 

Make plug and ring gauges. 

UvK 

Lessons 16, 17, and 18. 

Design and make an adjustable boring bar. 

Lessons 19, 20, and 21. 

Design and make an accurate fixture or jig for finishing some part 
so as to secure interchangeability. 

Unit M-102. —Testing. 


ORAL INSTRUCTION. 

Explain the importance of checking the accuracy of tools, jigs, 
gauges, plugs, fixtures, and measuring instruments. The need for 
and use of master gauges, fixtures, jigs, and tools. 

Lesson 1. 

Tests for squares: Machine a plate on the surface and one edge. 
Use care to get the edge straight by draw filing and scraping.. Cop¬ 
per the surface and draw a fine line perpendicular to the straight 
edge by means of the square being tested. Reverse the square and 
draw another line very close to the first. If the lines are not parallel 
the square is not true and the error is multiplied by two. 

Lesson 2. 

Make a plug for testing squares as follows: Square the ends and 
turn to a cylindrical form, a plug of a diameter a little less than the 
length of the body of the square to be tested and a length equal or 
greater than the blade of the square. Counterbore one end so as to 
relieve the center and leave a narrow lip near the circumference. 
Grind, on dead centers, to a true cylinder and the lip true. Use this 
plug to test the square on the inside edge of the blade. By placing 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 31 

tho plug on a surface plate the outside edge may be tested. Strips 
of thin paper (cigarette paper is good) may be used as feelers be¬ 
tween the blade and the plug. 

Lesson 3. 

Surface plates: Test by a master plate, or three may be tested 
with each other as when making them. 

Note. —For accurate layouts and testing an accurate 00° angle 
plate is necessary. Explain the effect of “seasoning" on cast iron. 

Lesson 4 . 

Test outside and inside micrometer calipers for accuracy. Test 
jigs and limit gauges with the micrometers. 

To accomplish the work outlined in this course the student must 
have had experience in the heat treatment of steel or receive instruc¬ 
tion as called for by the work in hand. 

EQUIPMENT FOR MACHINE SHOP. 


Course. 

Per man. 

Extra. 

Lathe. 

1 lathe and chuck. 


Drill press. 

Planer. 

1 drill press. 

1 planer. 

1 drill press vise lor 4 men. 

1 planer vise for G men. 

Shaper. 

1 shaper. 

Miller. 

1 universal. 

50 per cent of milling machines may be 
plain. 

Grinder. r . 

1 universal tool grinder or universal 

Horizontal b ori ng 

grinder. 


1 horizontal boring mill. 


mill. * 

Heavy lathe. 

1 engine lathe and chuck, 18 inches or 


Roneh work 

over. 

1 bench vise, hand tools. 

1 babbitt ladle and furnace for every 10 
men. 

1 laihe, 1 universal miller, 1 universal tool 
grinder, and 1 layout surface plate lor 
each 6 men. 

Tool making. 

.do. 




For the machine-shop work it is assumed that a sufficient number 
of tapis, drills, reamers, chisels, calipers, squares, and other tool-room 
tools are available for effective work. The maximum capacity of 
any machine shop for training these mechanics is equal to the number 
of machine tools, such as lathes, shapers, planers, etc., plus the 
number of places at the bench. Men doing floor work will require 
space at the bench. 

Equipment for blacksmith work, sheet-metal work, and pipe 
fitting is listed on pages 33, 34, and 48. 































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' 

. . 









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COURSES FOR BLACKSMITHING. 


PURPOSE. 

This course of training is intended to prepare men for the field and 
base units of the Army. Reliable work quickly done is the require¬ 
ment. How much of this course a man can cover in a given time 
depends on his previous experience. A green man probably could 
not cover all that is given here in the time specified. In any case, 
sufficient practice should be given to develop confidence and to get 
work right the first time. 

Army work consists chiefly of repairs of all kinds of equipment and is 
similar to that of the jobbing blacksmith. Motorcycle, automobile, 
truck, gas engine, and wagon repair are probably the most common. 

Qualifications of instructors and standards of proficiency are the 
same as previously stated. 

METHODS OF CONDUCTING CLASS. 

The work, like that of the machine operator, must consist laigely 
of actual practice. What oral instruction is given should be largely 
demonstration. The following is suggested as a daily schedule: 

8 to 8.30. Instruction and demonstration. 

8.30 to 12. Forge practice. 

1 to 1 30. Instruction and demonstration. 

1.30 to 5. Forge practice. 

(Note. —The first part of the course will require more time for 
instruction before the class. Later the important thing is practice.) 

Emphasis should be laid upon working direct from the broken 
piece or sample and from rough sketches rather than from finished 
drawings. Practice on a portable forge should be given. 

In case of congestion, it would be possible to assign one or more 
men as helpers. It is not desirable to work more than one man at a 
forge at one time, but the men may act as helpers in rotation. One 
instructor should be available for every 24 men. 


equipment. 

The equipment necessary is that of a good trade school or com¬ 
mercial shop, approximately as follows: 

One forge, anvil, and tools for each man. 

One hand shear, one cone, and one swage block for every 15 men. 
One portable forge for every 15 men. 




34 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


Unit B 1 .— Fundamentals. 

Give careful instruction about building a fire. Insist on clean, 
deep fire of thoroughly coked coal. Keep the fire no larger than 
necessary for the work being done. 

Lesson 1. 

Heat and draw out stock to increase its length by at least } inch, 
using stock f or J inch diameter. 

Lesson 2. 

Point iron or soft steel § inch diameter with cone point and square 
pyramid point, making taper inches in length. Points must not 
be split or twisted. 

Lesson 3. 

Shape stock J inch round into S hook, and staples with square 
points. 

Shape stock £ inch square into twisted gate hook. 

Insist on good proportions and symmetry. 

Lesson 4. 

Upset stock J by | by 5 inches till it is 4 inches long and uniform 
section. 

Upset stock | inch diameter by 5 inches till it is 1 inches long and 
uniform section. 

Lesson J. 

Upset and form standard bolt heads (both square and hexagonal) 
on stock i or J inch diameter. Use heading tool. 

Lesson 6. 

Make standard nuts (square and hexagonal) for -h, g, and •'/ inch 
bolts. Have hole central and tap drill size. 

Lesson 7. 

Make bolts with standard square and hexagonal heads by welding 
on stock for heads. Size } inch or over. 

Luessori S. 

Weld square and round stock, size J to J inch with and without 
helper. Have finished welds full size and thoroughly welded. Test 
by bending. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 35 


Lesson 9. 

Chain ring, stock J inch. Ring to be round and uniform in section. 
Make several J-inch single chain links. Keep the links uniform in 
size, shape and section. 


Lesson 10. 

Chain 4 feet of § inch. Keep links small, uniform, welds sound. 
Attach ring from No. 9. 

Lesson 11. 

Grab hook, stock f inch square. Punch the eye and bend to shape. 
Attach to chain No. 10. C hook, weld, eye. 

Lesson 12. 

Make band riug 5 inches inside diameter and Hat ring 5 inches 
outside diameter. Stock J by 1 inch. Shrink band ring on flat ring. 
Make band ring smaller, if necessary, by heating and cooling first one 
edge and then the other. 

Lesson 18. 

Flat lap weld. Stock £ by 1 inch. Test by bending. 

Lesson 14. 

T and angle welds. Stock J by 1 inch. Emphasize the advantage 
of fillet, where one can be permitted. 

Lesson 15. 

Butt or jump weld. Stock 1 inch diameter or over. 

Unit B-2.— Practice Jobs. 

Lesson 1 . 

Open-end wrenches to fit standard nuts for 4 to 1-inch bolts. 
Closed wrenches to fit standard nuts, bolts, or fittings of 2 inches or 
more in size. Spanner wrenches of miscellaneous size and type. 

Lesson 2. 

One pair plain tongs. One pair chain-link tongs. 

Lesson 3. 

One pair bolt tongs or box-jaw tongs. Redress two or more tongs. 


36 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


Lesson If.. 

Make collar from § by 1J inch stock. Shrink this collar on pipe or 
bar having a diameter between 4 and 6 inches. 

Lesson 5. 


Weld broken rods and other pieces that require to be of fixed length 
when finished. 


Lesson 6. 


Stop leaks in water jackets by shrinking bands on the part. Also 
by use of split collars drawn together with bolts. 

Unit B-3.—Steelwork. 

(Note. The following points are to be emphasized by lecture and 
demonstration.) 

Use clean, deep fire. Do not allow blast to strike steel without 
passing through a bed of coke. Heat thoroughly. Forge at a good 
heat. Use heavy blows that will penetrate deeply and thus avoid 
stretching the surface and starting internal flaws. 

Anneal before hardening. Harden at the lowest possible heat and 
always on the rising heat. Temper by running or drawing the color 
or in tempering bath as is best for the v r ork on hand. 

Lesson 1. 


Make 3 cold chisels. One each from -J-, §, and £ inch octagon steel. 
Make one diamond-point chisel from f inch octagon steel. 

Make one Uinch cape chisel from |-inch octagon steel. 

(Tempering note. —Explain and demonstrate the different meth¬ 
ods of tempering. Run the temper, draw the temper, flashing off 
oil, and tempering in bath.) 

Lesson 2. 


Temper chisels and punches by running the temper. 

(Caution. —Avoid overheating the edge or corners. If any part 
is overheated, lay the tool one side till it cools to black heat; then 
reheat and harden on rising heat.) 

Lesson 3. 


Make hardy to fit anvil. Draw to an edge by sledge and fuller. 
(Caution. —Heat thoroughly. Work with heavy blows.) 

Lesson If. 

Redress and temper several hardies or handled chisels. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHTNE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 37 

Lesson 5 . 

Make or redress and temper rock drills. Redress and temper 
hand picks. Sharpen and temper mattocks. 

Unit B-4.—Steel Welding. 

Emphasize the following: Use of flux, clean fire, deep fire, heavy 
blows with heavy hammer to thoroughly weld the pieces. 

Lesson 1. 

Weld steel to iron. Lap weld and split weld. 

Lesson 2. 

Lav steel on mattocks and steel bits in picks. 

Lesson 3. 

Weld leaf springs. Hafhmer-temper these springs. Set the spring 
leaves and assemble the full spring. 

Lesson J. 

Temper flat, leaf, and other springs. Harden in oil and flash, 
also harden and draw the temper as is best suited to the spring in 
hand. Practice each method. 


Lesson 5. 

Case-harden bolts, nuts, and pins. Caution in the use of cyanide. 

Unit B-5.— Advanced Job Work. 

Lesson 1. 

Straighten structural iron or steel shapes as angle iron, channel 
iron, and I beams. Straighten auto frames. 

Lesson 2. 

Straighten connecting rods and axles. 

Lesson 3. 

Babbitt connecting rods. Set up rods on babbitting fixtures with 
liners properly in place. Preheat the head and mandrel. Have 
metal proper heat. 

Lesson J. 

Replace broken lugs by forged pieces fastened on by studs or cap 
screws. Use care in screwing into thin cast-iron walls. 


38 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

Lesson 5. 

Stop leaks by shrinking bands on the part, also by split collars 
drawn together by bolts. 

Lesson 6. 

Set tires on cart and wagon wheels. Explain "dish.” 

Lesson 7. 

Repair broken straps, braces, and other iron parts on wagons. 
Other repair jobs that may be encountered. 

Lesson 8 . 

Make riveting hammer. Temper the same. Dress hand hammers. 

Lesson 9 . 

Make handled cold and hot chisels. Fit handles to hammers and 
mount the same to give the proper "hang.”. 

Lesson 10. 

Draw temper on tools that require tempering for considerable 
length of cutting edge, as reamers. 


COURSES FOR SHEET-METAL WORKING. 


PURPOSE. 

The course in sheet-metal working is intended to give training in 
general tinsmith work, soldering, brazing, and general repair. Sheet- 
metal pattern drafting is not included. Much of the work in the 
Army is in the nature of repairs to equipment. Skill in the use of 
the soldering iron is a prime requisite. 

Unit S-l. —Soldering. 

Oral instructions .—Explain the use of fluxes, cleaning of parts to be 
soldered; care of soldering iron, and the tinning of the same. 

Cautions: Avoid breathing fumes from the acids. Keep acids 
and fumes away from steel tools. 

Fluxes; 

Muriatic acid .—Used raw. 

Cut or boiled acid. -Muriatic acid with all the zinc that will dis¬ 
solve. Dilute with 25 per cent water for ordinary work. 

Nitric acid .—Used to clean quickly. As soon as part is clean 
dip in cold water to stop action. Avoid the acid fumes. 

Salammoniac .—Solid and solution- Used to clean the soldering 
iron. 

Rosiu — pulverized .—Used to solder lead and sometimes tin. 

Tallow. To solder lead. 


Lesson 1. 

Dress and tin a pair of soldering irons. A special shape is some¬ 
times required and may be made by heating the copper to a good 
red heat and forging to shape with a hammer. Clean with a coarse 
file; dip in salammoniac solution while the iron is hot and apply 
solder, or rub on a cake of salammoniac with solder. Continue this 
until the surface is well coated with solder. A good, clean, well 
tinned iron is the first requisite to good soldering. 

Lesson 2. 

Practice soldering tin, using a plain lap joint. The solder must 
flow through the joint and the seam be left smooth without a surplus 
of solder. 


40 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 

Lesson 3. 

Solder holes of various sizes. If the hole is too large it is often 
possible to peen the metal around the hole and partly close it before 
applying the solder. Be sure the metal is clean before trying to 
solder. If necessary scrape the surface well and then clean with 
raw acid, wash with water and then flux with cut acid. Always 
leave the repair smooth. 

Lesson J. 

Join two pieces of copper pipe about I inch diameter. Taper one 
end with a file and expand the other, using a conical point. Clean 
and tin the ends. Place them together with a twisting motion. In 
soldering use cut acid as flux; hold the copper on the joint until it 
is hot enough to melt the solder and sweat the joint thoroughly. A 
sleeve can be made very easily from the next larger size of tubing 
with a rat-tail file. 

Lesson 5. 

Join two pieces of sheet iron. Clean the metal thoroughly with 
a file and apply raw acid till a slight copper color is seen. Wash 
with water and solder as with tin, using cut acid. 

Lesson 6. 

Cast iron can be soldered quite readily by first cleaning the parts 
thoroughly with a file, apply raw acid and rub well with the swab 
or brush; then wash with clean water and tin with solder, using cut 
acid as a flux. In using the soldering copper apply the flat surface 
to the cast iron so as to heat the part as much as possible. This 
method is often used to solder light pieces, particularly brass, to face 
plates of machines instead of holding them in chucks. This is done 
to avoid springing the piece. 

Solder brass to cast iron as above. It may be removed with the 
hot iron or a torch. 


Lesson 7. 

Solder cracks in cast iron, e. g., a cracked water jacket of a gas 
engine. File out a V where the crack is, using the edge of a half- 
round file; clean with raw acid; wash with water and use cut acid as a 
flux. A special solder made from 70 per cent tin and 30 per cent 
lead will hold better than the ordinary half-and-half solder. 

(Note. —Soldering automobile tanks and radiators is frequently re¬ 
quired. Soldering tanks is not difficult for one who is skilled in the 
use of the soldering iron. Have the work clean before attempting 
to solder. Use raw acid for a flux on galvanized iron.) 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 41 

Caution: It is very important that tanks or cans that have con¬ 
tained gasoline should be thoroughly cleaned. Wash out with hot 
water and allow to dry before attempting to do any soldering. Get 
tanks and cans from a junk dealer for practice. 

Lesson 8. 

Mend several tanks. Large holes may require a patch. 

Lesson 9. 

Test radiators and solder the leaks. For this purpose a tank large 
enough to take in a radiator must be provided. It should contain 
water enough to cover the radiator being tested. Plug the inlet and 
outlet pipes and close the cap tightly. By forcing air in at the 
overflow pipe the leaks are indicated by bubbles. 

Caution: If compressed air is used the operator must be careful 
not to use pressure that will burst the thin radiator sections. Radiator 
repair calls for great skill and ingenuity as each job requires special 
treatment. Often the soldering iron must be given a special shape. 

The following procedure may be followed on tubular radiators. 
Heat the tubes where they are split with a blow torch. Apply cut acid 
several times with a squirt can. Rinse off. Heat again and apply 
cut acid. Pour a ladleful of melted solder over the tubes and catch 
in a pan. 

Unit S-2.—Aviation Work. 

A thorough mastery of Unit S-1 is necessary. Put special em¬ 
phasis on lessons 8 and 9. 

Lesson 1 . 

Wrap wooden pieces, such as found in the airplane, with copper 
wire and coat this wire with solder to form ferrules. Be sure that the 
ends of the wire are securely fastened. 

Lesson 2. 

Tip wooden parts with sheet metal. The metal must be cut out 
in proper shape, sometimes shaped by peening, to fit neatly, must be 
tacked on and the joints and tack heads thoroughly soldered. 

Patterns for sheet metal tips may often be quickly made bv folding 
paper around the part, taking up the slack in the paper by folds, 
cutting the paper and fitting by the ‘ ‘cut-and-try” process. 

Lesson 3. 

Make several wire splices as described in Government Specifications 
and Signal Corps Manuals for Airplane Crews. Be sure that the 
solder runs entirely through every part of the splice. Remove all 
trace of acid so as to avoid corrosion. Avoid heating the wire to a 
point where the colors start, as this softens and weakens the wire. 
Do not use a blow torch. 


42 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


Lesson 4 . 

Make up wire loops as directed on pages 18 and 19, “ Notes on 
Rigging for Air Mechanics” (see bibliography). These loops are 
often required to be 011 each end of a wire and of an exact distance 
apart. The lashing must be soldered thoroughly. 

(Note.— Much practice is required in this work. It will require 
previous experience as a tinsmith or exceptional mechanical ability. 
Airplane sheet-metal workers are expected to be able to weld small 
parts by the oxy-acetylene welding process.) 

Unit S-3.— Brazing. 

Brazing is uniting parts by hard solder or spelter. It is used where 
more strength is required. What is known as silver solder is some¬ 
times used. This comes in thin sheet form. Spelter is available in 
granular and wire form. 

Lesson 1. 

Braze two strips of sheet iron or steel. Bevel the ends of the pieces 
so as to make a uniformly thick lap joint with a lap of about | or f 
inch. Clean with raw acid; wash with water. The pieces should be 
held together with a clamp, fixture, or rivet. Put a piece of silver 
solder between the lapped pieces. Have a pair of heavy pliers ready 
to pinch the joint together when heated. Heat the joint with a blow 
torch or a pair of brazing tongs. When the solder melts remove the 
tongs or torch and quickl} 7 close the joint with the pliers. Finish 
the joint to a uniform thickness with a file. 

Lesson 2. 

Braze a band-saw blade by the method used in lesson 14. Use 
extreme care to have the back of the blade in a straight line and the 
teeth properly matched at the joint. The joint must be filed to the 
original thickness of the blade and the ends of the lap thoroughly 
brazed. 

Lesson 3. 

Braze a steel tube into a fitting. Have the joint lit closely so the 
molten spelter will be drawn into the joint by capillary attraction. 
Drill and rivet the pieces together after cleaning as in lesson 1. 
Heat with a blow torch. The work should be surrounded by fire 
brick to retain the heat. It is an advantage to have a bed of clean 
coke or charcoal to work on. The gas flame will ignite this coke 
and help secure an even heat around the joint. When a red heat is 
secured, apply borax as a flux. When the borax runs over the joint 
apply the spelter in granular or wire form; wire is better, as it can be 
placed where wanted. If the joint is not fitted well, the spelter will 
not fill the cavity and the joint may look perfect but be poor. The 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 43 


heating can be done in an ordinary forgo if rare is used, but it is 
difficult, to get an even heat throughout the joint and there is much 
more danger of overheating. 

Calcined borax is better for flux. Prepare by heating the borax 
until the water is driven off. Then cool to a glass form and pulverize. 

Unit vS-4.—Sheet-Metal Patterns. 

This branch of sheet-metal work requires a knowledge of drawing 
and development of surfaces. The following lessons involve con¬ 
siderable drawing: 

Lesson 1. 

Make a cylinder 4 inches in diameter with a butt joint. Roll to 
shape and tack with solder at several points. 

Lesson 2. 

Make a reducing pipe 4 to 3 inches, 6 inches long. Roll to shape 
and tack with solder as in 1. The ends must be in a plane perpen¬ 
dicular to the axis. 

Lesson 8. 

Make a 90° two-piece elbow 4 inches in diameter. Develop the 
pattern, cut out of tin, shape, and solder. 

Lesson 4- 

Make a 90° four-piece elbow 4 inches in diameter as in 3. 

Lesson o. 

Make a funnel of predetermined dimensions. This involves two 
truncated cones. Wire the edge. 

Lesson 6. 

Make a tin cup 4 inches in diameter and 4 inches deep. Wire the 
edge and solder the seams. 

Lesson 7. 

Make a 2-quart pail 6 inches in diameter and 5 inches deep. Roll 
a stiffening ring with swedging rolls. Wire the edge, solder the 
seams, and attach the ears and bail complete. 

Lesson 8. 

Make a T fitting 4 by 4 bv 4 inches. Allow for seams. Develop 
the pattern and complete the fitting. 

Lesson 9. 

Make a T fitting 4 by 4 by 3 inches, i. e., a 4-inch pipe entered by 
a 3-inch pipe. Complete as in 8. 


44 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


Lesson 10. 

Make a fitting as in 9 ; 4 by 4 by 3 inches, with the 3-inch pipe 
entering at a 30° angle. 

Lesson 11. 

Make a conical collar that will fit around a 4-inch pipe at the small 
end, the included angle of the cone to be 60° and the base 8 inches. 

Lesson 12. 

Make a conical collar to fit over a 4-inch pipe that passes through a 
one-third-pitch roof. 

(Note. —The making of various shapes, fittings, and sheet-metal 
parts can be extended indefinitely, but it is felt that the schools 
better confine themselves to the elementary work.) 


SHEET-MET A L EQUIPMENT. 


Individual: 

1 pair No. 8 left-hand snips. 

1 pair No. 8 circular snips. 

1 riveting hammer, lj-inch face 

1 set solid punches. 

1 roof scraper. 

1 No. 6 rivet set. 

1 chisel, 5 by 6 inches. 

1 chisel, f bv 10 inches. 

1 pair flat pliers, 7-inch. 

1 flat bastard file, 10-inch. 


For each 2 men: 

1 table 3 by 7 feet, 32 inches high_ 

1 fire pot (gas, gasoline, or charcoal) 

1 pair soldering irons. ; . 

For each 4 men: 

1 gasoline blowtorch. 

For each 6 men: 

1 bench vise.. 


For Unit S-4 add the following (sheet-metal patterns). 
For each 10 men: 

1 turning machine. 

1 burring machine. 

1 hollow mandrel stake. 

For each 20 to 25 men: 

1 36-inch square shear. 

1 37-inch by 2t-inch adjustable slip roll. 

1 4-foot O. K. cornice brake. 

1 30-inch bar folder. 

1 No. 3 swedging machine. 

1 crimper and header. 

1 wiring machine. 

1 creasing stake. 

1 blow-horn stake. 

Total equipment for 20 men. 


Each. 

Total for 
20 men. 

82.35 
3.25 
.85 
.83 
. 25 
.29 
.20 
.30 
1.60 
.40 


10. 32 

8206.40 

S. 00 
2.25 
2.12 

80.00 
22.50 
21.20 

6.08 

30. 40 

4. 25 

12.75 

1 

373. 25 

17.40 
15.80 
8.45 

34. SO 
31.60 

16.00 

94. 75 
75.00 
75.00 
57. 90 
36. 85 
21.05 
19. .50 
12.08 
8.95 

401.68 


648.23 



A list of special equipment for airplane metal workers will be 
found in the course outlines for airplane mechanics. 














































COURSE FOR PIPE FITTERS. 


PURPOSE. 

The purpose of this course is to teach a man to measure, cut, fit, 
and thread iron and steel pipe, to make tight joints, and to do ordinary 
piping l to 2 inches in size directly on the job or from sketches and 
blue prints. No attempt is made to teach plumbing except in so far 
as the piping of range boilers and heating systems may be considered 
a part of the plumbing trade. 

The requirements for admission, qualifications of instructors, place 
for instruction, and standards of proficiency are the same as outlined 
in the general introduction to this bulletin. 

METHOD OF CONDUCTING CLASS. 

The instruction given must consist largely of actual practice. 
Oral instruction and sometimes demonstration on the topics listed 
are necessary. For this purpose the class should meet as a group in 
the shop or classroom. Attention is particularly called to the fact 
that as a part of this oral instruction men should be taught to use 
handbooks, catalogues, and reference tables which may often be 
obtained free of charge from manufacturers and jobbers. 

In case it is possible to give some instruction in laying out piping 
systems, two groups may be handled, each group alternating between 
shop and drafting room. Such instruction is desirable but » ot 
absolutely necessary for a pipe fitter. In no case, however, is it 
sufficient to give this classroom instruction without the shop practice 
unless it is given as supplementary work to men who are already 
practical pipe fitters. 


(J nit P-1. Pipe F itting . 

ORAL INSTRUCTION. 

(1) Study of pipe sizes and standards. 

(2) Pipe threads and threading and pipe dies. 

(3) Measuring pipes, center to center, end to end, center to end; 
measuring offsets. 

(4) Pipe fittings; couplings, bushings, ells, tees, etc. (Pay special 
attention to method of stating dimensions of pipe tittings.) 

(5) Valves. 

(6) Pipe bending. 

(7) Pipe joints for steam, water, air, ammonia, etc. 


46 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


(8) Gaskets. 

(9) Methods of piping for hot-water and steam heating systems, 
Tange boilers; proper slope of pipe for different conditions. 

(10) Use of handbooks, catalogues, and standard reference tables. 

SHOPWORN. 

Lesson 1. 

(a) Cut off pipe to give length and thread both ends. 

(i b ) Make a nipple chuck and cut a shoulder nipple and a close 
nipple. 

(c) Cut a piece of pipe, thread both ends, and put on flanges so 
that when they are screwed up tight the distance bet ween the flanges 
will be 12 inches and the flange faces parallel. 

Lesson 2. 

(a) Take the 12-inch piece used in lesson 1 and cut it in two. 
Thread the ends, insert a coupling, and make up so that the distance 
between flanges is 11 inches. 

(b) Uncouple and insert a valve and make up so that the distance 
between the flange faces remains the same. 

(e) Couple the pipe to some pressure system and see if joints are 
tight; make them tight if any leaks appear. 

(d) Remove all packing from the valve stem and repack so that 
it will withstand pressure without leaking. 

Lesson 3. 

(a) From the nipples used in the above lessons and such lengths 
of new pipe as may be nccessaiy make a rectangle of straight pipe 
and 90° ells, closing with a union. Fit the last piece so that the last 
piece fits closely without springing the rectangle out of shape. 

( b ) Use at least two street ells and two couplings and make up the 
above rectangle, inserting a valve and a union. 

(c) Make up the rectangle, using one angle valve in place of an 
elbow. 

Iuesson 4- 

(a) Connect the ends of two pipes at a fixed distance from each 
other horizontally and vertically with a 45° offset. Determine the 
length of the offset carefully so as not to pull either the vertical or 
horizontal pipe out of place. 


EMERGENCY TRAINING FOR MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 47 


Lesson 5. 

(а) Connect two pieces of pipe by means of a flange joint so that 
the total length of pipe is 24 inches or some other dimension fixed by 
the instructor. Make up the flange joint with a gasket and test for 
leaks under pressure. 

(б) Connect up a valve between two pipe flanges a fixed distance 
apart and make flange joints at each end tight with gaskets. (A 
flange valve may be used if desired.) 

Lesson 6. 

(a) Bend a piece of pipe to go over or under some obstruction, 
making up the joint for a straight run on each side. 

(b) Make a turn of 90° by means of a bent pipe instead of an ell. 

(c) Take the 90° bend and shape it so that the two flange faces 
will be at a fixed horizontal and vertical distance from each other. 
This distance must be predetermined and the bend made accordingly. 
Be sure to have the flange faces square with each other. 

Lesson 7. 

(a) Set two flanges at an angle with each other. Bend a wire 
template to show shape of pipe between the two flanges and bend 
pipe to conform to template and angle of flanges. Two boards may 
be set to show the angle between the flanges and the positions of 
boltholes. Vary the angle of the flanges and set them so that the 
centers of the faces of the two flanges are not in the same plane and 
bend pipe accordingly. 

Lesson 8. 

(a) Connect up a one-pipe radiator, assuming that the pipe starts 
from the basement main. 

(b) Connect up a two-pipe radiator, assuming that the pipe starts 
from the main and runs to the return. (Vertical risers may be 
shortened.) If possible, test for leaks. 

Lesson 9. 


Connect a vertical range boiler to a hot-water back and cold-water 
supply. 

Lesson 10. 


Connect a horizontal range boiler to a hot-water back and a cold- 
water supply. 


48 EMERGENCY TRAINING FOE MACHINE-SHOP OCCUPATIONS. 


PIPE-FITTING EQUIPMENT. 


(For a class of 12 men.) 


2 pipe benches. 

4 pipe vises. 

2 sets pipe dies, •£ to 1 inch. 

1 set pipe taps, J to 1 inch... 

1 set pipe dies, H to 2 inches. 

1 set pipe taps, II to 2 inches. 

1 tap wrench, small. 

1 tap wrench. 

2 6-inch Stillson wrenches. 

810-inch Stillson wrenches. 

214-inch Stillson wrenches. 

Stock of fittings, valves, flanges, gaskets, packing, etc 

1 range boiler, second-hand. 

2 steam radiators. 


Each. 

Total. 

$15.00 

$30.00 

2. 63 

5.26 

G. 75 

13.50 

4.54 

4.54 

11.00 

11.00 

7.75 

7.75 

1.00 

1.00 

2.00 

2 00 

.80 

1.00 

1.00 

8.00 

1.40 

2. SO 


15.00 


3.00 


5.00 


80.40 


A pipe-tlireading machine is desirable but not absolutely necessary 
unless large sizes of pipe are used. If there is opportunity to pipe 
up actual installations of steam pumps, engines, or heating systems 
it should be utilized to the fullest extent for instructional purposes. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUC ATION. 


Annual Report for 1917. 

Statement of Policies. 

Training Conscripted Men for Service as Radio and Buzzer Operators 
in the United States Army (International code). 

Emergency Training in Shipbuilding—Evening and Part-Time 
Classes for Shipyard Workers. 

Mechanical and Technical Training for Conscripted Men (Air 
Division, U. S. Signal Corps). 

Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. 
Training of Teachers for Occupational Therapy for the Rehabili¬ 
tation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. 


^ x. -x-7 — 

smithing, Sheet-Metal Working, and Pipe Fitting. 

Emergency War Training for Electricians, Telephone Repairmen, 
Linemen, and Cable Splicers. 

Emergency War Training for Gas-Engine, Motor-Car, and Motor- 
Cycle Repairmen. 

Emergency War Training for Oxy-Acetylene Welders. 

Emergency War Training for Airplane Mechanics—Engine Repair¬ 
men, Woodworkers, Riggers, and Sheet-Metal Workers. 


Bulletin No. 

1 . 

"Bulletin No. 

2. 

Bulletin No. 

3. 

"Bulletin No. 

4. 

Bulletin No. 

5. 

Bulletin No. 

G. 

-Bulletin No. 

7. 

"Bulletin No. 

8. 

"Bulletin No. 

9. 

"Bulletin No. 

10. 

"Bulletin No. 

11. 

"Bulletin No. 

12. 


* Emergency war training for conscripted and enlisted men. 


WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1918 



































BULLETIN No. 9 


Emergency War Training 

FOR 

Electricians, Telephone Repairmen 
Linemen, and Cable Splicers 


ISSl fcB BY THE 

FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 
WASHINGTON 


FEBRUARY. 1018 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICB 
1918 






hC/O+S 

,/izS~ 


FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

MEMBERS'. 

David F. Houston, Chairman^ James P. Munroe, 

Secretary of Agriculture. Manufacture and Commerce. 

William C. Redpield, Charles A. Greathouse, 

Sect'etary of Commerce. Agnculture. 

William B. Wilson, Arthur E. Holder, 

Secretary of Labor. Labor. 

P. P. Clanton, Commissioner of Education. 


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E X E C l! TI V E SI' A PP. 


C. A. Prosser, Director. 

Layton S. Hawkins, Josephine T. Berry. 

Assistant Director for Assistant Director for Home 

Agricultural Education. Economics Education. 

Lewis H. Garris, Charles H. Winslow, 

Assistant Director for Assistant Director for Research. 

Industrial Education. 

F. G. Nichols, 

Assistant Director for Commercial Education. 


All communications should be addressed to 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, I). C. 


D. of D. 

MAR 18 1918 








CONTENTS. 


Foreword. 

General purpose. 

How these courses were prepared. 

Bibliography. 

Qualifications for admission to classes. 

Qualifications of instructors. 

Equipment.. 

Courses and manner of conducting them.. 

Course for electricians. 

Unit E-l.. 

Unit E-2.. 

I. Electric wiring. 

Unit E-3... 

I. Testing. 

II. Operating.. 

III. Construction. 

IV. Interior telephones. 

Unit E-4... 

I. Direct-current motors and generators. 

II. Induction motors. 

III. Motor wiring. 

IV. Alternating-current and direct-current starting devices... 

V. Storage batteries. 

Probable supplies required to carry out proposed course in Unit E-2.... 
Probable equipment required to carry out proposed course in Unit E-3 
Probable supplies required to carry out proposed course in Unit E-4... 
Courses for telephone men. 

Unit E-5—Construction and repair of telephone lines. 

Tools and material necessary for Unit E-5. 

Unit E-G—Repair and adjustment of magneto telephone apparatus. 

Tools and material necessary for Unit E-6. 

Unit E-7—Cable splicing. 

Tools and equipment necessary for each man for Unit E-7. 

Tools and equipment necessary for each two men for Unit E-7- 

Publications of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. 

( 3 ) 


Page. 

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7 

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16 
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20 
20 
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30 

31 























































FOREWORD. 

As has already been shown in previous bulletins of the Federal 
Board for Vocational Education, there is a critical and constantly 
glowing need for many thousands of mechanics and technicians 
foi Army occupations carried on in and behind the lines of the 
United States Army. Many of these workers, already experienced 
in similar occupations of civil life, will be secured through the draft 
and possibly through voluntary enlistment. It is recognized bv 
those in a position to know that the quotas thus gained will not be 
sufficient, and that it wffil be necessary to give special training to 
many thousands of men for various occupations and in various ways. 
The War Department has taken definite steps to provide for this 
training systematically through Army schools and in some instances 
at cantonments, but largely at the industrial, trade, and engineering 
schools of the country. 

For some months the Federal board has been making intensive 
investigations and studies of the demands of the Army occupations. 
A series of bulletins for the guidance of those giving this training 
has resulted from these studies. The courses and methods suggested 
in these bulletins have been carefully checked by experienced Army 
officers and represent the consensus of opinion as to what training 
should be given and how it should be given. 

A list of all the bulletins thus far published and in progress of 
publication is given on page 31 of this bulletin, those dealing with 
the w r ar emergency training of conscripted and enlisted men being 
starred. Persons desiring to secure copies of any or all of these 
bulletins can readily do so by applying to the Federal Board for 
Vocational Education, Ouray Building, 805 G Street NW., Washing¬ 
ton, D. C. 

This bulletin is the fifth in the scries. It was preceded by Bulletin 
No. 2, on radio and buzzer operators; Bulletin No. 4, on mechanical 
and technical training for conscripted men in the Air Division of 
the United States Signal Corps; Bulletin No. 7, on motor-truck 
drivers and chauffeurs; and Bulletin No. 8, on machine-shop occupa¬ 
tions, blacksmithing, sheet-metal working, and pipe fitting. These 
four bulletins were issued to meet the need for trained men in the 
United States Signal Corps, and they might be called ‘‘service 
bulletins,” as contrasted with “occupational bulletins.” The other 
bulletins in this series were written to meet the need of training 
men for an occupation or occupations within any or all of the 
different branches of the service. 


(5) 


6 


The first two bulletins dealt entirely with the need of trained men 
for specific occupations in the Signal Corps. Now that the needs 
of the other branches of the service have been charted and the work 
of training is being put on a definite and systematic basis, it will 
be possible to establish training schemes to fit men for an occupation 
in a number of different branches of the service, leaving to the War 
Department the task of distributing these men after they have been 
trained. In this way the specific needs and requests of the different 
branches of the Army for the same kind of trained men will be 
equitably met. It is expected that the courses and methods sug¬ 
gested in these bulletins will form the basis of practically all the 
training given under Army auspices for practically all of the occupa¬ 
tions dealt with in the bulletins. 

The purpose of the courses outlined in this and other bulletins 
can not be emphasized too strongly. They are war emergency 
courses in the fullest meaning of the term. They arc not trade 
courses in the sense that they attempt in any measure to prepare 
men for recognized trades and occupations as carried on in civil 
life. They are short, brief, direct courses of instruction designed to 
fit men in a great emergency to meet the specific demands of processes 
and operations carried on by an army under war conditions, which 
in most cases approximate the demands and requirements of similar 
work in civilian occupations. 

Men taking this kind of training should not be led to believe that 
they are learning a trade. They are serving their country by learn¬ 
ing to do a special job well, though to some extent this training 
may be beneficial to them in after life. 

These courses were prepared by K. G. Smith and J. H. Gill, special 
agents of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, with the 
assistance of Louis D. Bliss, Alvin M. Bland, Skipwith P. Coale, 
Edward H. Cooley, Milton M. Flanders, William M. Johnson, jr., 
John M. Sharp, Edward J. Wilson, and A. B. Campbell, under the 
direction of Charles H. Winslow, assistant director for research. 

Acknowledgment for valuable suggestions is made to Army 
officers in the Signal Corps, the Quartermaster Corps, the Engineer 
Corps, the Coast Artillery Corps, and the Ordnance Department; 
to the members of the Committee on Classification, Division of Tests, 
Adjutant General’s Office, and to specialists in charge of the mechani¬ 
cal repair shops of the Army. 


C. A. Prosser, Director. 


EMERGENCY WAR TRAINING FOR ELECTRICIANS, TELE- 
PHONE REPAIRMEN, LINEMEN, AND CABLE SPLICERS. 

COURSES FOR ELECTRICIANS. 

GENERAL PURPOSE. 

Tliesc courses for electricians are intended to prepare men, as well 
as they can be prepared in a short time, for service in the various 
branches of the Army. The courses for telephone men are intended 
particularly for men in the Signal Corps. The three electrical 
courses exclusive of the telephone courses cover three general lines 
of work: Inside Wiring, Installing and Operating, and Electrical 
Machine Repair. Naturally, the fundamental principles of all are 
the same, but specialization and emphasis is necessary on certain 
classes of work. For instance, men who are to be employed on 
storage batteries would specialize on that subject. Searchlight 
specialists would require some work in addition to that outlined here. 
The aim has been to make the outline complete enough for the 
general electrician and suggestive of special work to be given when 
necessary. 

1IOW THESE COURSES WERE PREPARED. 

The courses in this bulletin were outlined after conferences with 
Army officers in direct charge of the work concerned and studies 
of the specifications and trade tests of the Committee on Personnel 
of the War Department. The completed outlines have been sub¬ 
mitted to officers of the various branches of the Army and have 
received their approval. This does not mean that any mem who takes 
a course is thereby qualified to become a noncommissioned officer any 
more than that every graduate of a training camp is qualified for a com¬ 
mission. It does mean that one of these cemrses faithfully followed 
gives fundamental training for Army work. Advancement depends 
on personal ability and experience. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

A suggested bibliography of suitable textbooks and pamphlets for 
each course has been prepared by the Research Division and may 
bo obtained by addressing the Federal Board for \ocational Educa¬ 
tion, Ouray Building, Washington, D. C. 

( 7 ) 


8 


QUALIFICATIONS FOR ADMISSION TO CLASSES. 

Previous experience in some kind of electrical work is an advantage 
for men who take these courses. A fair general education including 
a knowledge of arithmetic and simple algebra is necessary. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF INSTRUCTORS. 

The instructors for these courses should be men versed in the 
practical applications of electricity and electric machinery, not men 
whose knowledge is largely theoretical. The main part of the work 
is to teach actual operations instead of merely textbook facts. The 
instructor in charge of Unit E-l (the lectures) may have less practical 
experience than the others. He should, however, keep closely in 
touch with the shop so that he may coordinate his lectures with tile! 
work which is being done in the shop. 

EQUIPMENT. 

The equipment necessary is that of an electrical trade school, not 
that of an electrical engineering laboratory, although a laboratory 
might be adapted to the purpose by additional equipment. Special 
equipment required is listed in connection with each course. 

COURSES AND MANNER OF CONDUCTING THEM. 

The courses for electricians outlined in this bulletin are divided 
into two distinct classes; those for electricians proper and those for 
telephone men. Both these courses differ from those for machinists, 
blacksmiths, and pipefitters in that a considerable amount of tech¬ 
nical knowledge as well as manipulative skill is required. Due to 
this fact special arrangements for conducting the course must be 
made involving class room instruction as well as shop and field work. 
These arrangements are fully described in the paragraph preceding 
each course. 

COURSE FOR ELECTRICIANS. 

This course is divided into three units or divisions for shop work, 
known as E-2, E-3, E-4. The students in these three divisions unite 
to take the lectures on fundamental principles known as E-l. The 
three units are independent of each other, and a man can start with 
any unit and stop after taking one, two, or all of the units offered. 
Since the lectures on fundamental principles (E-l) are the same for 
all and begin at the beginning of a two months’ training period, it is 
advisable for all the men registered in E-2, E-3, E-4 to begin at the 
same time. Men can enter after the course has started, but this 
makes it more difficult for them to derive full benefit from it. 


9 


This course is condensed so as to require intensive work, but a 
man who is willing to work hard and has a natural liking for elec¬ 
tricity can secure a good foundation. With this foundation and 
the experience which he will get in Army work he should be able to 
rise in rank and efficiency. The full course requires the attendance 
of the me 1 8 hours per day for 36 days, or a total of 288 hours. 

The two months training period specified allows for a Saturday 
afternoon holiday, for special work, and for final examination. In 
case equipment is available and time allows, it is suggested that 
some special study of searchlight units be made. 

For service in certain branches of the Army some topics may be 
omitted and others emphasized. For instance, electricians in the. 
air section of the Signal Corps may omit power-plant operation and 
pay special attention to storage batteries, inside wiring, low voltage 
power plants, and searchlights. 

The time allotted to the four units is as follows: 


Unit. 

Hours 
per day. 

Days. 

Total. ! 
hours. 

' E-l. 

2 

3»> 

J 

j E-2. 

6 

12 

72 

E-3. 

(> 

12 

72 ! 

! E-4. 

0 

12 

72 | 

Total number of hours. 


1 . 

28S 


Suggested schedule of classes in warm latitudes during summer 
months: 

7 to 8 a. m., lecture review and general conference. 

8 to 10 a. m., work in shops. 

10 to 11 a. m.. lecture. 

11 to 2 p. m., recess. 

2 to 6 p. m., work in shops. 

Work in each one of the Units E-2, E-3, E-4 is carried on simul¬ 
taneously, 25 men being enrolled in each, under two instructors 
working six hours per day. The three units combine under one 
instructor for classroom work two hours per day. Seven instructors 
are thus required to handle 75 men for an eight-hour day. If the 
units are small, one instructor instead of two may be assigned to 
each unit. 

Unit E-l. 

The work in this unit will consist of 36 lectures delivered in a 
one-liour period, one each day, for 36 days. 

On the day following the delivery of a certain lecture the instructor 
will conduct, for one hour, a conference and a general discussion of 
the preceding day's lecture. 

4346G°—18-2 




















10 


The lectures will embrace the following subjects: 

1. General principles of A. C. and D. C. currents. 

Nature of electricity; Medium for transmission of power; Not a source of power; 
Difference between charges and currents; How charges and currents are produced; 
Magnetic, chemical, and thermal effects of electrical currents; Machines for producing 
direct and alternating currents; Where and why each would be used. 

2. Conductors , insulators, sizes of ivires. 

Good conductors, partial conductors, insulators; Relative conductivity of metals; 
Suitable insulators for various purposes; Brown & Sharpe wire gauge; Size of wires; 
Carrying capacity of wires; Stranded cables; Various kinds of insulated wires and 
places where used. 

3. Electrical units and definitions. 

Define: Force, work, and power; Basis of system of electrical units. Define and 
explain with analogies: The volt, the unit of electromotive force, electrical pressure, 
or difference of potential; The ampere, the unit of rate of flow of current; The ohm, 
the unit of resistance which a body inherently possesses; The coulomb, the unit of 
electrical quantity transferred by an ampere in one second; The watt, the unit of 
power, the rate of doing work in an electrical circuit where the pressure is one volt 
and the current is one ampere, the 1/746 of a horsepower. The joule, the unit of 
work, the work done in a circuit by a current of one ampere under a pressure of one 
volt in one second of time. 

4. Ohm's law and divided circuits. 

Basis of Ohm’s law; The current in any circuit is equal to the electromotive force 
in volts, divided by the resistance in ohms; Examples involving the volts, amperes 
and ohms, and circuits, showing how to determine any one when the other two are 
known; Examples showing the calculations for the power in circuits; Calculation of 
the combined resistance in series and in multiple circuits; Equal and unequal resist¬ 
ances in multiples: Adaptation of motors to higher voltages than those for which they 
are designed. 

5. Primary and secondary batteries. 

Construction of wet and dry Le Clanche cells; Principles involved; Gordon and 
Edison Lelande cells; Work for which each type is adapted; Principles of secondary 
cells, how constructed; Standard types; Gould Exide, Willard, etc.; Edison alkaline 
secondary cell; Relative advantages. 

G. Care and maintenance of secondai'y batteries. 

How to assemble battery; Care in initial charging; Rate of charge and discharge; 
Danger in having either rate too high; Buckling and disintegration of plates; Safe 
low point of discharge; Danger in leaving discharged. Testing: How to determine 
condition of charge; How to maintain in good condition; Life of plates; How to take 
down a battery; Guarding against freezing; Rating of stationary and portable bat¬ 
teries. 

7. Inside wiring. 

Wiring for bells and annunciators; Wiring for lights; Open work, with knobs and 
cleats; Molding work, with wooden moldings; Concealed work, with knobs and tubes; 
Conduit work, with rigid and flexible conduits; Control of circuits by switches; 
Single-pole, double-pole, and three-point switches, where used; Feeders, mains, 
branches; Taps, location of distributing centers; Suitable length of branch lines. 

8. National Electrical Code. 

General suggestions; Location of generators; Protection of same; Outside service 
wires; Method of entering buildings; Inside wiring; Smallest wire permissible; 
Insulation to be used; Carrying capacity for various insulations; Number of watts 


11 


permitted in branch lines; Size of conduits; Fixtures; Insulating joints; Special 
precautions. 

9. Circuit breakers, fuses, safety devices. 

Principle of fusible cut-outs; Construction of fuses; Open and inclosed fuses; Loca¬ 
tion of cut-outs; Fuse plugs; Electromagnetic circuit breakers, principle and con¬ 
struction; Overload and no-voltage protection; Lightning arresters; Knife and snap 
switches. 

10. Wiring calculations. 

Simple formulas for determining the size of wire in circular mills and in Brown & 
Sharpe gauge, for inside wiring, for all purposes; Practical examples illustrating 
these calculations for various cases; Suitable losses to prescribe in mains and branches. 

11. Magnetism, magnetic actions of currents. 

Nature of magnetism; Temporary and permanent magnets; Magnetic polarity: 
Location of poles; Magnetic substances; Magnetic action of currents; Construction of 
solenoids and magnets; Action of wires carrying currents upon each other. 

12. Direct-current ammeters and voltmeters. 

D’Arsonval type; Weston model 45, and class voltmeters; Series ammeters; 
Magnetic vane instruments; Difference in construction between voltmeters and 
ammeters; Method of connecting instruments to circuits: Shunt ammeters; Prin¬ 
ciple of shunts; Interchangeability; Several instruments from one shunt. 

13. Wattmeters, indicating and recording. 

Indicating wattmeters; Principles of dynamometer; Dynamometer types of instru¬ 
ments; Weston and general instruments; Connection of wattmeters to line; Compen¬ 
sation; Recording watt-hour meters; General electric direct-current type for two wire 
and three-wire systems; Sangamo mercury type; Alternating current induction type 
of recording instruments; Westinghouse, General Electric, Duncan, etc., reading of 
dials; Light load and full load adjustments. 

14. Direct-cunent dynamos, principles. 

Principles of electromagnetic induction; Direction of induced currents; Field 
structure; Armature; Process of commutation: Construction of commutators; Meth¬ 
ods of exciting fields; Drum and ring armatures; Slotted armatures; Forms of slots; 
Advantages; Losses in armatures; Lamination of cores: Relation of conductors, flux, 
and speed to voltage generated. 

15. Armature windings. 

Hand-wound armatures: Formed coils; Throw or spread of a coil; Effect of chord 
windings; Pitch of a winding; Lap; Multiple or parallel windings; Closed coil wind¬ 
ings; Cause of bucking, remedies; Cross-connected windings; Bipolar and multipolar 
windings; Series, wave, or two-circuit windings; Distinction between series and 
parallel windings; Effect of series windings on voltage of generator; Possible number 
of coils in series windings; When armatures could be reconnected from parallel to series 
and when not; Demonstrations of various windings. 

1G. Armature troubles and remedies. 

Armature reaction; Distortion of field; Sparking at brushes; Shifting of brushes; 
Brush width; Carbon brushes; Armature windings, short circuited, open circuited, 
grounded; Green armatures; Loose connections at commutator; High, low, or loose 
commutator bars; Grounds in commutator; Care of commutator; Proper brush setting; 
Position and tension; Effect of speed on sparking. 

17. Shunt and compound dynamos. 

Principles of shunt dynamos; Nature of current and potential delivered; Building 
up of field; Regulation for constant potential under variations in load; Factors which 
contribute to constancy of potential; Danger of overloading or short circuiting; 
Necessity for opening external circuit when building up; Compound dynamos; Differ- 


12 


ence from shunt; Long and short shunt compound; Effect of alteration of speed on 
compounding; Flat compounding; Overcompounding. 

18. Parallel operation , care and maintenance of D. C. machines. 

Inherent tendency to shunt machines to operate in parallel; Voltage, size and type 
of machines which can be relied upon to operate in parallel; Methods of paralleling 
shunt machines and dividing the load between them; Method of paralleling com¬ 
pound machines and dividing the load between them; Equalizers and connections; 
Conditions under which compound machines may be operated in parallel; Location 
of defects in machines; Overheating; Wrong connections; General points to be 
observed in caring for machines. 

19. Three-wire systems. 

Edison three-wire system; Advantages over two-wire systems; Where three-wire 
system should be used; Saving in copper effect; Necessity for balancing; Use of two 
machines, one three-wire generator, one or two transformers; Application to direct or 
alternating current; Use of motor balancers. 

20. Principles of D. C. motors. 

Principle of motor operation; Comparison with dynamo; Reversibility of dynamos 
and motors; Relative direction of series, shunt, and compound dynamos when run as 
motors; Kind of motor best adapted for various classes of work; Regulations of shunt 
and series motors under variations in load; Compound motors. 

21. Motor-starting devices. 

Necessity for resistance in armature circuit to start; When needed and when omitted; 
No-voltage release magnets; Where connected; Protection afforded; Overload pro¬ 
tection; Standard forms of boxes for small and large motors; Reversing direction of 
motors; Switches and control devices; Danger of too suddenly reversing current in 
motors; Automatic motor starters; Series and shunt connected starters for providing 
gradually acceleration. 

22. Speed control of D. C. motors. 

Effect upon speed and horsepower of motor, when voltage on armature is varied by 
means of resistance inserted in series between armature and line; Advantages and dis¬ 
advantages of this method of control; Effect upon speed and horsepower, when resis¬ 
tance is inserted in field circuit; Advantages and disadvantages; Interpole motors for 
field control; Advantages. 

23. Principles of alternating currents. 

All machines generate A. C.; Direct current machines rectify this current, alter¬ 
nating machines do not. Nature of the alternating current and voltage wave produced; 
Three values of E. M. F., maximum, virtual, and average; What the voltmeter and 
ammeter register; Definition of alternation, cycle, period, frequency, inductance, 
reactance, impedance, phase, synchronism. 

24. Constmction of alternators. 

Multipolar fields, usually placed internally and revolving; External armatures, 
slotted with formed coils, of two layer or chain windings; Distributed windings and 
effect compared to concentrated windings; Exciters; Voltage of exciting circuits; 
Generated voltage in alternators; Belt and direct drive. 

25. Single and polyphase systems. 

Single-phase alternators; Three-phase alternators; Explanation of each system and 
its advantages; Use of three-phase machines as single-phase; Relative capacities 
when so used; Application of each system for power purposes; Economy in wiring 
on three-phase. 

26'. Principles of transformers. 

Construction of transformer; Principle of operation; Method of transferring energy 
from one winding to other; Losses in transformers; Insulation; Lamination of core; 


13 


Shell and core types; Oil insulation and cooling; 
Ratio of transformation; Efficiencies. 


Raising and lowering transformers; 


27. Parallel connecting of transformers. 

Testing or phasing out prior to connecting i„ parallel on high-tension and low-tension 
sides; Grounding of secondaries; Advantage and danger; Kffects of wrong connec¬ 
tions; Danger to life from high-tension windings; Potential and current transformers 
for instrument use on switchboards. 


28. Principles of A. C. induction motors. 

The rotary magnetic field of force; Transformer action and motor action combined 
in one machine; Rotor current determined by slip behind revolving field; Pure 
single-phase motors; Polyphase motors; Regulation compared with shunt motors; 
Induction motors lighter and superior in regulation. 

29. Types of induction motors. 

General electric, Forms K, L, and M rotors. All employ same stator. Type best 
adapted for a particular class of work; Wagner, Westinghouse, General Electric type 


30. Induction-motor starters and speed control. 

Compensators and resistance starters; Relative advantages; Phase-splitting devices 
for starting and running three-phase motors on single-phase circuits; Three methods 
of making single-phase induction motors inherently self-starting; Repulsion method; 
Condenser method; Auxiliary winding method: Capacity of three-phase motors on 
single-phase circuits; Speed-control of induction motors; By resistance in primary 
circuit; By resistance in secondary circuit; Effect of change of frequency on speed. 

31. Principles of telephones. 

The carbon transmitter and permanent magnet receiver; Principles of the batten 
telephone; Use of the induction coil; Advantages; Simple telephone circuits; Calling 
devices. 

32. Telephone systems. 

Series telephones; Bridging telephones; Advantages of each; Magnetos for each 
system; Telephone switchboard for magneto ringing and individual batten - , Inter¬ 
communicating telephones without central operator. 

33. Telegraphy. 

Keys; Sounders; Relays; Simple telegraph circuits; Main and local circuits for 
long lines; Kind of current to use; Resistance of relays and sounders; Closed-circuit 
system used in this country; Polarized relay; Where used; Sensitiveness. 

34. Incandescent and mercury vapor lamps. 

Carbon lamps—construction, durability, principle, and efficiency; Tungsten 
lamps—vacuum and gas filled; Construction, efficiency, and applications; Mercury 
vapor lamps; High e.tciency; Peculiar color values; Where used; Available in large 
units only; Methods of starting; High voltage and tilting methods; Ballast necessary 
on constant potential circuits; Method of wiring. 

35. Summary of most important work in course. 

36. Conference on matters not thoroughly understood. 

Some schools may not be able to give all the work outlined, but 
may arrange to give one or more divisions as Unit E-2, E-3, or E l. 
If the equipment is not sufficient the classes may be smaller than 25, 
and use one instructor per unit instead of two. In the shopwork the 
length of time devoted to one subject or lesson will depend upon 
the time available and the degree of specialization necessary. The 
hours stated are for the general fundamental course. 


14 


Unit E-2. 


I. Electric Wiring. 


Lesson 1. Electrician’s Tools. 


Explanatory talks. 

Practical work. 

(a) Uses of different tools required for a 

■ ■■■ • ■ • ’ C-S; 

wireman with a minimum outfit 

. .... . . ,'v; v 

suggested for wireman. 


(1 hour.) 

: 


Lesson 2. Wire Joints and Splices. 


(a) Reasons for good joints. 

(b) - Different joints, where used ... 

(c) Demonstration of how to prepare 

wires and make the following: 
Short tie Western Union, long tie 
Western Union, tee, loop tee, 
double tee, rat-tail, fixture splice, 
staggered splice for twisted pair, 
Brittania splice, and tape cable 
splice. 

(d) Instruction and demonstration in 
soldering with the following: Gaso¬ 
line blow-torch, alcohol torch, sol- 


Students to make two of each joint used. 
Students to solder and tape every joint 
made. 


dering copper, and molten metal. 

(e) Instructions in taping joints. 

(fi hours). 

(1 hour.) 

Lesson 3. Bells and Annunciators. 

(a) Open wiring with bell wire and 

twisted pairs. 

(b) Concealed wiring with cable and 

conduit. 

(c) Locating trouble on battery systems, 

sectionalizing. 

(d) Testing and renewing cells. 

Bells and buttons in multiple. 

Return call system of bells. 

•:.t»j 

Practice with batteries and bell-ringing 
transformers. 

Wiring for simple and return call annunci¬ 
ators. 

Exercises with relays. 

(8 hours.) . 

( e ) Bell-ringing transformers. 

(1 hour.) 


Lesson 4. Open Wiring, Cleat Work, and Wood Molding. 


(a) Systems of distribution 


(b) Connections of lamps 


(c) Code requirements. 

(d) Locating trouble on system: 

a. Lamp and fuse method. 

b. Magneto method. 

(e) Wood molding, code requirements, 

securing to different surfaces, miter¬ 
ing, passing through partitions and 
floors, use of taplets. 


(1 hour.) 


Practical exercises illustrating use of most 
important fittings and code require¬ 
ments. 

Exercises showing mains and branches, 
use of S. P., 3-point and 4-point 
switches. 

Use and proper method of installing knife- 
switches and cut-outs. 

Installing drop cords, underwriters knots. 


Carrying wires through partitions and 
floors. 

Protection of wires on side walls. 

I Wood molding; exercises giving practice in 
mitering, use of taplets, switches, cut¬ 
outs, and other fittings. 

(18 hours.) 








































15 


I. Electric Wiring —Continued. 
Lesson 5. Concealed Knob and Tube Work. 


Explanatory talks. 


(a) Wiring symbols. 

(b) Code requirements. 

(c) Laying out installation. 

(d) New houses. 

(e) Entering building with mains, run- j 

ning branches, boring floor joists, 
inserting wires, making flush switch j 
and fixture outlets.! 

(f) Testing the installation. 1 

(1 hour.) 


Practical work. 


A few practical exercises covering code re¬ 
quirements. 

Exercises shall cover making oi switch and 
fixture outlets. 

Installing of flush switches and fixtures. 

(8 hours.) 


Lesson G. Conduit Wiring, Flexible and Rigid. 


(a) ttndf> requirements . 


(b) Concealed and open conduit wiring. .. 

(c) Entering building with mains and 

running branches. 

(d) Tools used .- . 

’Pr^marma 1 t for 11 SO .. 

A few exercises for practice, giving cut¬ 
ting, threading, reaming, bending, and 
offsetting conduit. 

Grounding system. 

Fishing wires and making joints in boxes. 
Installing fixtures and flush switches. 
Testing installation. 

Ron A in op r»rvnr1iiit offsot5? ___ 

T^ixtiirp mid switch outlets. .......... 

/h\ SVfitoni ... 

Exercises for practice with flexible con¬ 
duit giving; cutting, securing into 
boxes and use with different fittings. 

TTiallino* wirP9 . .. 

(j; Tests for grounds, crosses, open cir- 1 
cuits. 

/lr\ Trlon tifinofirm nf WirOM .. J 

IK ) lUtJllllIILallUii bi nil to . . j 

(1) Armored cable: Code requirements, j 
where used, BX and BXL, cutting 
cable and securing into box, pass¬ 
ing cable through floors and parti¬ 
tions, use around machinery, 
grounding, testing. 

(1 hour.) 

(1G hours.) 

Lesson 7. S 

pecial Wiring. 

(a) Different systems of distribution: 
Two-wire, three-wire, three-wire 
convertible, three-phase. 

Wiring for meter loops; two-wire A. C. and 
D. 0., three-wire A. 0. and D. 0., three- 
phase. . . 

Stairway control with four three-way 

(c) Switch suggestion^: Where to use sin¬ 
gle-pole and where double-ode 
switches, use of pendant switches, 
stairway control with two sets of 
three-way switches with least num¬ 
ber of wires, using four-way instead 
of three-way switches, electrolier 
switches (two and three circuit). 

switches. 

Burglar circuit wiring. 

(d; J>urgiai circuxi. 

Electrolier switches. 

(e) Fittings tor damp places. 

(2 hours.) 

(8 hours.) 














































16 


Unit E-3. 

I. Testing (12 Hours). 


Lesson 1. Meters (6 hours). 


Explanatory talks. 

Practical work. 

(a) Adjustment. 

(b) Minor repairs.. 

I Locking movement for transportation. 

Zero setting of pointer. 

Adjustment of jewels. 

Loose connections. 

Corroded connections. 

1 


Lesson 2. Voltmeter-ammeter Tests of Motors.and Dynamos (6 hours). 

(a) Resistance of dynamos and motors.... 

Resistance of fields for defects. 

Voltage between commutator bars for de¬ 
fective coils. 

II. Operating (24 Hours). 

Lesson 3. D. C. Plants (12 hours). 

(a) Single operation. 

Starting of generator. 

Adjustment of field current and voltage. 
Equalizers for compound machines. 
Paralleling of machines. 

Division of load. 

Taking load off one machine. 

Imbrication. 

Grinding of brushes. 

Tension of brushes. 

(b) Parallel operation... 

(o') Care of commutators and brushes. 

Lesson 4. A. C. Plants (12 hours). 

(a) Single operation... 

Starting of generator. 

Adjustment of voltage. 

Paralleling of machines. 

Synchronizing. 

Division of the load. 

Cutting out. one unit. 

Connections for proper voltage, both high 
and low tension. 

Single and three phase connections. 

(b) Parallel operation. 

(c) Transformers.. 


III. Construction (24 Hours). 

Lesson 5. Installation (12 hours). 

(a) Setting ot machines. 


(b) Adjustment of machines. 

Bases for sets. 

Lining up of bearings. 

Spacing of brushes. 

Setting brushes for neutral. 

Cleaning compound from new shafts <;nd 
parts. 

Adjustment of bearings. 

Drying out new or wet machines. 

Direction of rotation. 














































17 

III. Construction (24 Hours) —Continued. 
Lesson 6. Machine Wiring (6 hours). 


Explanatory talks. 

Practical work. 

(a) Connection of machines to bus. 

Phasing out three-phase generators. 

Wiring of field rheostats. 

Wiring of exciters. 

Wiring of bus. 

Lesson 7. Switchboards and Instruments for Power Measurement and Control (6 

hours). 

(a) Materials..—- 

(b) Mounting of switches. 

(c) Connection of meters. 

Slate, marble, wood. 

Spacing of connections. 

Kind of switches to use. 

Drilling of panels. 

Use of templets. 

• Fuses, capacity and location. 

Circuit breakers, location. 

Ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, and 
connection. 

Lamps for synchronizing. 

Synchroscopes for synchronizing. 

IV. Interior Telephones (12 Hours). 

Lesson 8. Installation (6 hours). 

(a) Intercommunicating. 

(K \ Cprjpo .. 

Cables. 

Identification of wires. 

Connection to wall instrument. 

(c*\ Mnltmle .. 



Lesson 9. Repairs (6 hours). 



Open circuits. 

/u\ T? pppi vprs ... 

Short circuits. 

Open circuits. 


Adjustment of diaphragm. 

Ixiose connections. 

( C ) A Iciilollll .. •■••••• 

(d) Induction coils and hook contacts.... 

Packing of carbon. 

Open circuit. 

Loose or corroded connection. 


Note— The above exercises are to be supplemented by talks as may bo necessary. 






































18 


Unit E-4. 

I. Direct Current Motors and Generators (42 Hours). 


Lesson 1. Armature Winding (24 hours). 


Explanatory talks. 

Practical work. 

(a) Insulation. 

Varieties and where used: 

Fish paper, varnished cambric, mica. 
Varnish, shellac, enamels. 

Tapes. 

Cotton covered, silk covered, and 
enameled wires. 

(b) Hand and form winding. 

Preparation of slots. 

Series and lap windings. 

| Tagging end connections of coils, 
i Identification by vari colored insulation 
in formed coils. 

| Construction of forms. 

-j 

| Shaping of coils. 

! Taping. 

. 

Connections to commutator. 

. 

Soldering connections to commutator. 

(c) Banding.. j 

(d) Baking.I 



Lesson 2. General Repairs, Armature and Fields (6 hours). 


(a) Mechanical. 

Off center, end thrust, balancing. 

Seized bearings. 

Pouring babbit, relining bearings, scrap¬ 
ing bearings. 

Terminals and terminal blocks. 

Grinding brushes. 

Broken parts, etc. 

Shorts, grounds, opens, green armatures, 
hot spots, loose connections. 

Bucking coils. 

Reversed connections of series or shunt 
field or both. 

Emergency repairs: 

Cutting out defective coil and short¬ 
ing commutator segments. 

Tf open, shorting gaps in commutator, 
etc. 

(b) Electrical. 


Lesson 3. Commutator Repair and Rebuilding (6 hours). 

(a) Assembly and machining of segments. 

(b) Machining of clamp ring and nut. 

(c) Final assembly. 

(d) Testing, bar to bar and bar to ground, ■ 

factor of safety 10 to 1. 

(e) Preparing for connections to armature, 

tinning. 

(f) Repairing: 

Flat, loose, high, and pitted bars. 
Shorts and grounds. 

Pract ical work on subjects listed (5 hours). 

High mica . 

Foreign matter in “ undercut ” 
commutator. 


































19 


I. Direct Current Motors and Generators (42 Hours)— Continued. 
Lesson 4. Miscellaneous (G hours). 


Explanatory talks. 

Practical work. 

(a) Figure sizes of pulleys for single and 

double reduction in It. P. M. 

(b) Belt splicing. 

(c) Mounting motors and generators: 

Walls . 

Practical work on subjects listed (4 hours). 

Ceilings. 

Floors . 

(d) Couplings, hangers, jackshafts, me¬ 

chanical reversing mechanisms. 

(e) Belt shifters. 

(f) Lining of pulleys. 

(g) Soldering lugs, etc. 

11. Induction Motors (G Hours). 

Lesson 5. Stators and Rotors (G hours). 

(a) Winding, connecting, and electrical 

repairing. 

(b) Mechanical repairs., . 

('hanging star to delta. 

Changing voltages. 

Shorts, opens, grounds. 

Cutting out defective coils in emergency. 
Loose bars in lotor, undue heating. 

Off center, end thrust, balancing. 

Seized bearings. 

Pouring babbit, relining bearings, scrap¬ 
ing bearings. 

Terminals and terminal blocks. 

Grinding brushes. 

Broken parts, etc. 

III. Motor Wiring (12 Hours). 

Lesson G. Direct Current Motors (8 hours). 

(a) Starting devices ... 

(b) Wiring for serie-s. shunt, and com¬ 

pound motors. 

(c) Direction of rotation ... 

(d) Switches for reversing . 

(e) Speed control . 

' Wiring under directions given (7 hours). 

Lesson 7. Alternating Current Motors (4 hours). 

(a) Compensators and resistors. .. 

(b) Reversing direction of rotation . 

(c) Speed control . 

Wiring under directions given (3 hours). 


















































20 


IV. Alternating Current and Direct Current Starting Devices (6 Hours). 
Lesson 8. Troubles and Repairing (C hours). 

Explanatory talks. 

Practical work. 

(a) Shorts, opens, loose connections, cor¬ 

roded connections. 

(b) Release magnets. 

Practical work (5 hours). 

( c) Rewinding. 

(d) Reconnecting. 

(e) Reinsulating. 

(f) Cleaning contacts. 


V. Storage Batteries (6 Hours). 

Lesson 9. Vehicle and Station Storage Batteries (6 hours). 


(a) Charging 


(b) Maintenance 


(c) Repairs 


Effect of too high charging rate. 

Density of solution. 

Adjustment of density of solution. 

Effect of temperature on life and opera¬ 
tion. 

Indications of and remedies for sulphation. 
Replacing of separators. 

Care of separators not in a battery. 
Removal of compound on battery top. 
Disconnecting of cells. 

Removal of plates. 

Reassembly of cells. 


PROBABLE SUPPLIES REQUIRED TO CARRY OUT PROPOSED COURSE 

IN UNIT E—2. 

Electric wiring. 


For each unit of 25 men. 

Each. 

Total.. 

25 6 -inch machinist’s screw drivers. 

$0.35 
. 20 

§ 8 . 75 
5.00 
43. 75 
22.50 
93. 75 
25.00 
2.00 
2.80 
3.50 

25 3-inch cabinet screw drivers. 

25 pairs 6 -inch side-cutter pliers. 

1.75 

25 1-pound claw hammers 1. 

.90 

25 bit braces (preferably a ratchet brace with 10-inch sweep). 


25 fj-inch bits (preferably ship’s auger car bit 20 inches long)... 

1.00 

2 10-inch pipe wrenches”(Stillson preferred)...... 

1.00 

2 14-inch pipe wrenches (Stillson preferred). 

1. 40 

1 pipe vise No. 1 . 

3.50 

1 wheel pipe cutter (one cutter wheel type for pipes sizes § inch to 1 } inches). 

3. 75 

5 adjustable hack saw frames.. 

.85 

4.25 
6.30 
15.00 

100 10 -inch hack saw blades. 

. 76 

2 sets of stock and dies for pipe § inch to 1 inch. 

7.50 

2 Lakin split hickeys.* .*.. 

2 rat-tail filc-s 8 or 10 inch. 

.30 

.60 
12.00 
2.12 
1.75 
3.00 
8.00 
7.50 
8.00 
23.40 
12.25 
.85 
2.00 
1. 40 

2 gasoline blow torches, quart size. 

6.00 

2 1 -pound soldering coppers. 

1.10 

1 alcohol torch. 

1. 75 

4 6 -foot zigzag rules. 

• 75 

4 hand drills^hollow-liandle type with small drills. 

2.00 

500 feet scrap No. 14 rubber insulated wire. 

1.50 

80 feet scrap” No. 4 rubber or waterproof insulated wire. 

. 10 

90 feet scrap No. 0 stranded insulated wire. 

. 26 

35 pounds wire solder. 

.35 

5 5 -pound cans soldering paste. 

. 17 

4 pounds rubber tape.. T.t. 

.50 

4 pounds friction tape. 

. 35 

50 2^-inch vibrating*bells. 

.30 

15.00 

50 single-contact wood push buttons. 

.15 

7.50 


































































21 


PROBABLE SUPPLIES REQUIRED TO CARRY OUT PROPOSED COURSE 

in unit e— 2—continued. 


Electric wiring —Cont inued. 


For each unit of 25 men. 


50 Le Clanche wet cells of battery. 

4 12-drop simple annunciators.' . 

4 12-drop return call annunciators. 

10 bell-ringing transformers. 

10 door springs. 

10 battery switches. . . . 

,‘55 pounds No. 18 bell wire. 

20 pounds wire staples. 

10 20-ohm pony relays.1 

20 single-pole snap switches. 

40 cleat receptacles. 

200 2-wire cleats.. 

200 3 by A inch porcelain tubes. 

20 2-wireplug cut-outs. 

30 2-wire to 2-wire branch blocks. 

30 cleat rosettes. 

30 metal keyless sockets. 

20 double-pole single-throw knife switches. 

400 size 5^ split knobs. 

10 3-circuit snap switches. 

40 3-point snap switches. 

20 4-point snap switches. 

20 Paiste molding tablets. 

40 molding rosettes. 

30 double-branch blocks, 2-wire to 2-wire. 

12 3-pole combination switch and cut-outs. 

12 double-branch blocks, 3-wiro main 2-wiro branch. 

1 pipe reamer... 

36 A13 condulets....... 

2 pounds lock nuts, pinch.. 

2 pounds bushings, 1-inch. 

36 1-inch ground clamps. 

24 metal switch boxes, 7 by 10 by 4 inches. 

12 concealed work rosettes. 

12 1-li-ht electric fixtures. 

4 3-liglit electric fixtures. 

12 flush switch boxes A. A. type. 

12 single-pole flush switches.. 

12 brushed brass flush switch pi ttes. 

48 porcelain box bushings for f-inch hole. 

36 8-ii outlet boxes. 

12 8-B covers with bushed holes. 

12 closed co vers for 8-13 boxes. 

12 Hush switch boxes, typo 13. 13. 

36 hood connectors for I3x... 

200feet wood mol ine, 2-wire, for No. 14 wires... 

200 feet pinch rigid conduit. 

50 feet A circular loom. 

2,500 feet No. 14 R. S. wire.. 

100 feet No. 18 twisted lamp cord... 

5 pounds pinch pipe st raps.. 

1 magneto for testing circuits... 

10 gross 21-inch, size 9, round-head, blued wood screws. 

10 gross 21, size 9, flat head, bright wood screws. 

2 gross 1*L size 6, round-head, blued \vood screws. 

5 gross 1-inch, size 8, flat-head, bright wood screws. 

2 gross 2-inch, size 6, flat-head, bright wood screws. 

5 pounds 6-penny finishing nails..... 

2 pounds wood-molding capping brads.. 

3 pounds molding back saws...... 

3 wood mitre boxes...... 

3 keyhole saws, 14-iuch... 

6 pinch wood chisels...... 

25 boards, 1 by 12 by 14 feet, spruce, dressed on all sides. 

13 boards, 1 by 12 by 12 feet, spruce, dressed on all sides.. 

8 boards, 2 by 4 by 14 feet, Virginia pine, dressed on all sides.. 

9 boards, 1J by 3 by 14 feet, Virginia pine, dressed on all sides. 

7 boards, 1 by 6 by 12 feet, Virginia pine, dressed on all sides. 

5 pounds 10-penny head nails.. 

2 pounds 10-penny finishing nails.. 

12 pounds rubber tape.. 

15 pounds friction tape.. 

3 double-pole, double-throw knife switches. 

3 three-pole, double-throw knife switches. 

10 double-pole combination switch and cut-out. 

250 feet No. 18 It. C. fixture wire, 0.75 hd. 

200 feet Bx. 2 No. 14 wire. 


Each. 

Total. 

$0.35 

$17.50 

9.80 

39.20 

19.60 

78.40 

1.50 

15. (X) 

.20 

2.00 

.15 

1.50 

.45 

15.75 

.20 

4. IK) 

2.50 

25.00 

.25 

5.00 

. 15 

6.00 

.015 

3.00 

.01 

2.00 

.20 

4.00 

.38 

11.40 

.15 

4.50 

.25 

7.50 

.85 

17.00 

.02 

8.00 

.75 

7.50 

.85 

34.00 

.85 

17.00 

.20 

8.00 

. 15 

3 (X) 

.38 

11.40 

.85 

10.20 

.39 

4.68 

3.50 

3.50 

.28 

8.36 

.Oli 

• 35 


.50 

. 15 

5.40 

1.00 

24.00 

.15 

1.80 

2.50 

30.00 

5.00 

20 00 

. 18 

2. 16 

.25 

3.00 

.14 

1.68 

.05 

2.40 

.20 

7.20 

.10 

1.20 

.09 

1.08 

.18 

2. 16 

.06 

2. 16 

3.00 

6.00 

.07} 

15.50 

.03 

1-50 

.014 

35.00 

.035 

3.50 

. 15 

.75 

6.00 

6.00 

.65 

6. .50 

. 65 

6.50 

.45 

.90 

.35 

1.75 

.30 

.60 

.07 

.35 

. 15 

.30 

1.40 

4.20 

.75 

2.25 

. 45 

1.35 

.60 

3.00 









.07 

.35 

.07 

.14 

.50 

0.00 

.35 

5.25 

1.70 

5.10 

2.50 

7.50 

.55 

5.50 

.071 

1.88 

.07 

14.00 




























































































22 


PROBABLE SUPPLIES REQUIRED TO CARRY OUT PROPOSED COURSE 

in unit e— 2—continued. 

Electric iciring —Continued 


For each unit of 25 men. 

Each. 

Total. 

20 double-pole snap switches. 

$0. 60 
1.25 
.05 
.35 
.04 
.06 
.27 

$12.00 

1.25 
. 75 

5.25 
.60 
.90 

2.70 

75 feet steel wire fishing tape. 

15 crowfeet for electric fixtures. 

15 insulating joints 1 . 

15 fixture studs 1 . 

15 hickeys for fixtures 1 ..... 

10 attachment plugs. 

Total. 


937.92 




1 All for and to fit electric fixtures. 

PROBABLE EQUIPMENT REQUIRED TO CARRY OUT PROPOSED COURSE 

IN UNIT E—3. 

Electrical installation and operating. 



Each. 

Total. 

Testing: 

1 I). C. voltmeter 1 . 

$30.00 
35.00 
23.00 
20.50 
36.00 
31.00 

$30. on 
35.00 
28.00 
20.50 
72.00 
62.00 

247. .50 

1 D. C. ammeter (shunt and main line) 1 . 

1 A. C. voltmeter 1 .. . 

1 A. C. ammeter 1 . 

2 D. C. voltmeters . 

2 D. C. ammeters.. 

Total. 

Operating: 

2 compound-wound I). C. generators of at least 10 K. W. capacity, driven by 

constant speed prime movers and arranged for parallel operation'.. ”. . 

Switchboard panels complete, for operating and controlling the above D. C. 
generators. . . 


Provision for loading the above plant. 



2 3-phase A. C. generators of at least 10 K. V. A. capacity, complete, with exciters 

and driven by engines having governor control at the switchboard . 

Switchboard panels for the control of the above generators, complete including 
synchronizing apparatus ....... 



Provision for loading the above plant . 



4 transformers of at least 6.5 K. V. A. capacity each capable of being operated 
with above generators ... 

115.00 

460.00 

1 motor set D^C. to A. C. (3-phase) of at least 5 K. V. A. capacity, voltage and 
frequency being suitable to permit parallel operation with above A. C. plant. 
Suitable exciter for above A. C. generator . 

Construction: 

Suitable cable for connecting the above plant and lamps or motor for phasing out 
generator and bus .. 



Samples of all usual switchboard materials . 



Temporary boards of wood for practico and motor generator set used in connect¬ 
ing the above . 



Switches and circuit breakers or fuses for above set . 

Ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeter for the A. C. generator of the motor gener¬ 
ator set above . 



Interior telephones: 

2 series wall sets . 

10.00 
12.00 
5.00 
15.00 
5.00 

20.00 
24.00 
20.00 

2 multiple wall sets . 

4 inter communicating wall sets . 

Cable and wire as may be necessary for the above . 

Different types of magnetos, transmitters, and receivers . 



1 To be disassembled. 


Note.— The above apparatus represents the probable equipment desirable for the course as outlinep 
for a unit of 25 men and 2 instructors. If more than one unit were under instruction, the increase in equip¬ 
ment would be something less than in direct proportion. Exact specifications as to the type or amount 
of apparatus have been avoided, as that would vary widely in different cases, especially where the plant 
already exists. Tools required for the constructionwork have not been included in the above list as they 
would constitute a small and variable item. 
































































23 


PROBABLE SUPPLIES REQUIRED TO CARRY OUT PROPOSED COURSE IN 

UNIT E-4. 

Electrical machine repair. 


♦ 


Each. Total. 


50 square feet fish paper. 

50 square feet varnished cambic.. 

1 quart orange shellac.. 

1 pint varnisn. 

1 quart enamelac. 

5 pounds 3.4-inch friction tape..... 

10 dozen rolls J-inch tape.*. 

50 pounds magnet wire.. 

5 square feet &-inch red fiber.. 

150 feet sleeving (candle wicking). 

Wood for coil-forms. 

3 pounds bar solder (half and half). 

6 pounds wire solder. 

2 cans of patent flux.... 

2 pounds resin.. 

2 ounces muriatic a id.. 

2 spools brass or iron bending wire...... 

20 pounds No. 4 babbit. 

Sandpaper and emery cloth, machine screws and nuts for terminals,carbon brush 

material. 

25 pounds fuller's earth.„. 

1 sheet 0.035-inch built-up mica, 18 by IS inches..... 

50feet 2-inch ;ingle-ply leather belting. 

5 feet 2-inch rubber belting. 

5 feet 2 inch canvas belting. 

5 feet 3-inch double leather belting. 

5feet3 inch rubber belting. 

5 feet 3-inch canvas belting. 

2 cans belt cement. 

200 feet belt lacing, g-inch. 

Pdtcntfastcners....;...... 

2 dozen lag screws. 

2 dozen bolts....... 

2 dozen expansion bolts. 

1 dozen lugs (small)..... 

1 dozen lugs (medium). 

1 dozen lugs (large). 

200feet No. 14 flexible rubber-covered wire for connection to wire. 

50 feet J-inch circular loom. 

50 feet 3-inch circular loom... 

50 square feet sheet asbestos. 

2 cans l.e Page’s glue. 

5 poun is lead strip. 

5 pounds compound for battery tops. 

11 gallons IJcS 04 . 

3 dozen separators for battery.. 

10 armatures of various sizes, 1 horsepower to 10 horsepower or larger. 

6 cold chisels. 

6 cape chisels. 

1 set wood chisels. 

1 dozen hack-saw frames. 

1 gross hack-saw blades. 

2 sets of wood saws (hand, compass, coping and back). 

3 dozen 8-inch mill files. 

3 dozen fl&t bastard files.— .. 

1 dozen £ round bastard files. 

0 2-pound soldering coppers. 

2 heaters for soldering coppers. 

25 each of 8-inch pliers. 

25 each of 6-inch screw drivers.-. 

25 10-inch screw drivers. 

25 hammers..- - -—. 

2 dozen brushes for liquid insulation, 2\-inch. 


$0 50 
.13 
1.80 
1.25 
.50 
.35 
.85 
2.00 
.25 
1.00 
5.00 
.40 
.40 
.30 


.15 


1.50 
.288 
.075 
.168 
.864 
.259 
.245 
1.25 
. 01 } 
1.05 
.02 
.03 
.10 
.04 
.06 
.20 
. 02 } 
.03 
.05 
1.50 
1.00 
• 26} 
• ID 


.54 
50.00 
.30 
.30 
12.00 
1.00 
.10 
6.00 

3.25 

4.25 

5.50 
2.00 

6.50 
1.75 


.65 

.90 

.20 


SO.50 

6.50 
1.80 
1.25 

.50 

1.75 

8.50 
100.00 

.25 

1.00 

5.00 

1.20 

2.40 

.60 


3.00 

2.00 


1.50 

14.40 

.87 

.84 

4.32 

1.30 

1.23 

1.25 

3.00 

1.05 

.48 

.72 

2.40 

.48 

.72 

2.40 

5.00 

1.50 

2.50 

1.50 
2.00 

.60 

.60 


1.62 

500.00 

1.80 

1.80 

12.00 

12.00 

9.00 

12.00 

<». 

12.75 
5.50 
12.00 
13. a) 

43.75 
s. 

16.20 
22.50 

I SO 


1 oven for baking green armatures... 

5 18-inch or 20inch by 6 foot lathes and tools. 

6 defective or damaged motors and generators. 

2 blow torches (quart size).-. 

2 babbit ladles (6-inch size, self-skimming). 

3 sets of bearing scrapers. 

Prussian blue tape.. 

1 dozen drills of each size, ^ to 1 inch, by sixteenths 


6.00 

.85 

.75 

.15 

10.00 


12. (K) 
1.70 
2.35 
. IB 

100.00 


Belt shifters. 

2 belt punches, adjustable. 

2 levels. 

2 plumb bobs.. • - • - - • ■ - - - • • -. 

3 alternating-current induction motors (3-phase). 

1 direct-current starting box of various simple kinds, at least 4 total 
430-ampere 250E double-pole, double-throw switches. 


2.00 
7.00 
.50 


30.00 
6.80 



























































































24 


PROBABLE SUPPLIES REQUIRED TO CARRY OUT PROPOSED COURSE IN 

unit e-4 —continued. 

Electrical machine repair —Continued. 



Each. 

Total. 

2 field rheostats. 



1 compensator and resistor of various kinds. 



2 2-wire alternating-current outlets. 



2 3-phase alternating-current outlets... 



1 simple winding machine. 



1 of each of various kinds of battery, 33 J per cent... 



2 hydrometers (syringe). 

81.35 

82.70 

.60 

2 hvdrometers. 

.30 

1 dozen test tubes. 

1 lead-burning outfit. 

31.50 

31.50 

1 battery voltmeter and ammeter for charging. 

1.00 

1.00 

1 charging panel Tungar rectifier, 20 per cent. 

1 lamp or resistance for series charging. 



1 dozen 6-inch outside calipers. 

1.00 

12.00 

1 dozen 8-inch inside calipers. 

1.00 

12.00 

2 dozen 12-inch Sterret’s combination square... 

2.50 

5.00 

3 dozen 8-inch monkey wrenches.*.. 

1.25 

45.00 

3 dozen 10-inch monkey wrenches. 

1.50 

54.00 

2 dozen 21-inch monkey wrenches... 

4.50 

9.00 

3 sets double-end S wrenches. 

5.00 

15.00 

2 sets 1-inch micrometers. 

8.25 

16.50 

2 sets 2-inch micrometers..... 

8.75 

17.50 

3 pounds rivets.. 

.15 

. 45 

1 dozen dry cells... 

.40 

4.80 

6 dozen bells. 

.45 

32.40 

6 dozen telephone receivers, with head straps. 

2.00 

12.00 

dozen pairs of 10-inch tin shears. 

1.75 

31.50 

1 pair 14-inch tin shears....... 

2.50 

2.50 

1 dozen old commutators. 

Commutator damns for these commutators. 

1 

1 high-tension testing set. 



Motors, generators, and machine of any description for mounting. 



1 set Star drills for stone or cement. 



6 bit braces. 

3.75 

22.50 

2 sets auger bits, to H inches, by sixteenths...... 

3 breast drills. 

6.00 

18.00 

6 hand drills. 

3.50 

21.00 

1 dozen center punches. 

.25 

3.00 

Couplings, hangars, jack shifts, and mechanical reversing devices. 


. 


Total. 


1,388.90 





























































COURSES FOR TELEPHONE MEN. 

Three short unit courses for telephone men are outlined here. 

Unit E-5.—Construction and repair of telephone lines. 

Unit E-6.—Repair and adjustment of magneto telephone apparatus. 

Unit E-7.—Cable splicing. 

The courses for telephone men are somewhat more distinct from 
each other than the courses for electricians. For this reason, the 
manner of conducting them is somewhat different. Instead of 
having the three classes meet together for classroom instruction, 
four hours each day are to be devoted to study and recitation and 
four hours to field work. 

Unit E-5.—Construction and Repair of Telephone Lines. 

The outline for this course is based on the assumption that one 
instructor is available for every 24 men to be trained. It is further 
assumed that each group of 24 men is subdivided into four squads 
of six men each and that there is sufficient material and equipment 
for each squad to do the work as outlined independently. 

DAILY SCHEDULE. 

8.00 to 10.30, study period. 

10.30 to 12.00, recitation. 

1.00 to 5.00, field work. 

Study 'period .—Assignments given from textbook paralleling field 
work as nearly as possible. 

Recitation period .—General discussion of study-period assignments 
and demonstration of tools and equipment to be used in field work. 

Field work .—Instruction given on lesson basis. Schedule of les¬ 
sons given below: 

Lesson 1 .—Locate line and dig holes for a line one-half mile long. This line to in¬ 
clude one right-angle corner, one road crossing. 

Lesson 2.— Frame, distribute, and set poles in line. 

Lesson 3 .—Install anchors and guys for two dead-ends, one corner, and one road 
crossing. 

Lesson 4 — Place brackets and cross arms on poles and string as many wires as have 
been provided for by the brackets and cross arms which have been placed. 

Lesson 5 .—Install telephones on the lines put up in Lesson 4, so that there will be 
individual and party lines on both grounded and metallic circuits. 

Lesson 6— Arrange to connect these lines together when desired, so that communi¬ 
cation may be carried on between stations on different lines. If any interference 
should exist due to induction, attempt to eliminate same by installing repeating 
coils or cutting-in transpositions, or both. 

(25) 


26 


Lesson 7. —String one-fourth mile of messenger wire on poles in this pole line, so that 
it may he used for supporting cable. 

Lesson 8. —Hang some 25-pair cable in place on the messenger, which has been put 
up for this purpose. 

Lesson 9. —Test and locate as near as possible cases of trouble on the open-wire lines 
with a lineman’s test set. 

Lesson 10. —Test for and locate some cases of trouble in the cable with a “ fault 
finder.” 

Tjesson 11. —Let a number of open wires be broken and others grounded. Locate 
these breaks and grounds and repair the lines, so that communication may be estab¬ 
lished as soon as possible. 

Lesson 12. —Let some of the guys be loosened, so that some of the poles are pulled 
out of alignment. Pull these poles back to their proper places and put on new guys. 

Lessons 13 and 14. —Dismantle aerial construction. 

Lessons 15 and 16. —Build and dismantle a telephone line carrying 30 or 40 wires, 
using type II construction. 

Lesson 17. —Build and dismantle a line carrying two wires, using tripod construction. 

Lesson 18. —Dig trench and lay some 25-pair cable in ground without conduit. 

Lesson 19. —Select a number of points to be connected together with telephone 
lines temporarily but quickly. Run these lines into place and install the telephones. 

Lesson 20. —Establish communication between several points, using insulated wire 
in ground and service buzzer for communicating. 

Lesson 21. —A study of telephone sets for the purpose of familiarizing the outside 
man with some of the common faults of telephones and their remedies. 

Lesson 22. —A study of the magneto switchboard for purpose of familiarizing outside 
men with this equipment. 

Lessons 23 and 24- —Dismantle all equipment which remains in place and check up 
material and tools on hand. 

TOOLS AND MATERIALS NECESSARY FOR UNIT E-5. 

The following tools should be available for each srjvad of 6 men. 


2 24-inch canvas tool bags... 

2 22-inch handsaws. 

1 24-inch framing square. 

1 2-inch framing chisel....•. 

212-inch sweep ratchet braces. 

114-inch auger bit.... 

1 i^i-inch auger bit. 

2 6-inch bit hand axes.. 

2 round point, long handled, digging shovels_ 

2 digging spoons v .... 

2 slicks.'... 

4 clamping bars.. 

2 carrying hooks. 

2 pike poles 10 feet long.. 

2 pike poles 12 feet long. 

4 pair Klein pole climbers, complete, with straps. 

G pair Klein 8-inch side-cutting pliers. 

G heavy screw drivers, 6-inch bit. 

4 No. 132-133 Klein splicing clamps. 

1 monkey wrench. 

2 lag wrenches. 

2 blow torches.. 

2 take-up reels. 

2 pay-out reels. 

4 No. 4 Buffalo grips.. 

50 feet §-inch sash cord. 

1 50-foot tape measure. 

1 large block and tackle. 

Total for each squad of 6 men. 

Total for 4 squads. 


Each. 

Total. 

$5.50 

$11.00 

2.00 

4.00 

1.25 

1.25 

1.25 

1.25 

4.50 

0.00 

1.00 

1.00 

.00 

.9ft 

. 75 

1.50 

1.75 

3.50 

1.75 

3. 50 

1.50 

3.00 

2.00 

8.00 

2.25 

4.50 

1.70 

3.40 

2.04 

4.08 

3.50 

14.00 

2.30 

13.80 

.80 

4.80 

2.75 

11.00 

1.50 

1.50 

2.00 

4.00 

4.00 

8.00 

10.00 

20.00 

10.00 

20.00 

3. 75 

15.00 

.02 

1.00 

1.00 

1.00 

5.00 

5.00 


178.98 
_715.92 














































27 

Tools and materials necessary for unit E-5 —Continued. 


Kuch. 


GENERAL CLASS MATERIAL. 


Total. 


22 25-foot 6-inoh top cedar poles. 

25 10-pin cross arms, with pins. 

• r >0 wood brackets...I 

00 40-penny galvanized-wirc nails. 

«)0 20-penny galvanized-wire nails. Y.'.Y.'.Y.Y.Y........ \ 

250 No. 9 ponv glass insulators. . . . . . 

25 | by 10inch galvanized-iron machine bolts.' 

50 galvanized round washers, fj-inch hole. 

50 f by 31 galvamzcd-iron carnage bolts. 

50 galvanized washers, square. 

111-mile coils, No. 14 BB iron wire.. 

3 £-mile coil, Nc. 12 BB iron wire.....1 

0 Mathews 0-inch guy anchors. 

25 j} by 4 inch gauge lag screws...j 

4 galvanized-iron cross-3rm back braces...I 

10 2-bolt guy clamps. 

10 3-bolt guy clamps. 

2,000 feet {{-inch Siemens-Martin gauge strand. 

1,500 feet No. 17 twist pair, copper-clad wire...,. 

15 magnet bridging telephone. 

1 wall type switchboard telephone.. 

50 double groove knobs. 

50 3-inch No. 10 guage iron wood screws. 

7 box soldering flux... 

2 pounds wire solder. 

50 sleeves for splicing No. 14 iron wire... 

25 sleeves for splicing No. 12 iron wire.. 

G 6-foot galvanized-iron ground rods. 

1,500 feet 25-pair lead-co^red cable. 

1,200-cable rings... 

30 thimbles for g-inch strand. 

15 guy hooks. 

12 fj by 10 inch galvanized-iron machine bolts..... 

25 2\-inch square galvanized washers, fj-inch hole. 

12 cable suspension clamps. 

2 25-pair cable terminals. 

15 lightning arresters for telephones. 

50 No. 18 bridle rings, galvanized. 


$ 0.00 
1. Go 
1.75 
. 08 
.08 
4.92 
. 12 
.006 
.02i 
02 \ 
9.00 
9.00 
2 . 0 !) 
4. (XI 
15.00 
.15 
.20 
3.50 
15. (X) 


$132.00 
33.75 
.88 
.24 
.48 
12.30 
3.00 
.30 
1.25 
1.13 
44.00 
34.65 
12.00 
1.00 
.60 
1.50 
2.00 
70.00 
22.50 


7.00 
2.00 
.15 
.35 
1.75 
1.50 
.45 


9.00 
4. GO 
. 12 
12.00 
2.25 
. 12 


3.50 
1.00 
. 15 
.70 
.88 
.38 
3.10 


10.80 
1.38 
1.80 
1.44 
.57 
1.44 


3.00 


400.52 


1 shed should be built which would permit tools and material to be stored. This 
shed could be made to do for four squads, and each squad could keep its tools and 
material separate. 


Total general material. $400.52 

Total for 4 squads. 715.92 

Total for class.. _. 1,110.44 


Unit E-6.—Repair and Adjustment of Magneto Telephone Apparatus. 

The outline for this course is based on the assumption that one 
instructor will be available for each 15 men to be trained, that in¬ 
struction will ho given daily and will extend over a period of one 
month, and that sufficient apparatus and material will be available 
for each man to work independently in performing the laboratory 
exercises. 

DAILY SCHEDULE. 


8 to 10.30, study period. 

10.30 to 12, recitation period. 

1 to 5, laboratory work. 

Lesson 1 .—A study of ringing generators for magneto telephones. 

Lesson 2. —A study of the ringing equipment for magneto telephones. 

Lesson 3 .'—A study of transmitters, receivers, induction coils and batteries for 
magneto telephones. 

Lesson 4 .—Assembling and wiring magneto telephones. 

Lessons 5 and 6 .—Repairing and adjusting parts of magneto telephones. 

Lesson 7— A study of the signaling equipment of a magneto switchboard. 


























































28 


Lesson 8. —A study of the switching equipment of the magneto switchboard. 
Lesson 9. —Magneto switchboard cabling. 

Lesson 10 .—Auxiliary equipment for a magneto switchboard; main distributing 
frame; power generator; protective devices. 

Lesson 11. —A study of magneto switchboard circuits. 

Lesson 12. —Switchboard installation. 

Lessons 13 and 14- —Testing, repairing, and adjusting magneto switchboard parts. 
Lessons 15 and 16. —Testing telephone lines for faults from the central office. 

Lesson 17. —Review. 

Lesson 18. —Dismantling apparatus. 

The remainder of the time is to be devoted to review of important 
topics and final examination. 

TOOLS AND MATERIALS NECESSARY FOR UNIT E~6. 

This list of tools and material is required for each group of 15 men. 


15 pairs 6-inch side cutting pliers, $1.75 each. $26. 25 

15 pairs 5-inch diagonal pliers, $1.50 each. 22. 50 

15 pairs 5-inch long nose pliers, $1.15 each. 17. 25 

15 pairs 4-inch cabinet screw drivers, 40 cents each. 6. 00 


15 magneto telephone bridging. (Need not be new nor alike.) 

7 magneto switchboards with operators sets. (Need not be fully equipped 
with line drops and jacks. These need not be new nor alike.) 

7 main distributing frames for use with magneto switchboard. 


200 feet, 50 pairs switchboard cable. 50. 00 

7 testing cabinets with voltmeter and whetstone bridge. 

50 dry cells, at 30 cents each. 15. 00 

1,000 feet No. 19 inside twist pr. $14 M. 14. 00 

1 Yankee hand drill with set of bits, $2.50. 2. 50 

2 hand vises, $3 each. 6. 00 

I gross lf-inch wood screws, at 35 cents gross.35 

6 electric soldering irons, $5 each. 30. 00 

5 pounds rosin core solder, 70 cents pound. 3. 50 


Unit E-7.—Cable Splicing. 


193. 35 


Ill this course it is assumed that 1 instructor will be available for 
each 15 men to be trained, that instruction will be given six days a 
week for two weeks, and that sufficient equipment and material is 
available so that each man may work independently. 


SCHEDULE. 


First day, 8 to 12. 

1 to 5. 


Second day, 8 to 12. 
Third day, 8 to 12. 

Fourth day, 8 to 12. 

Fifth day, 8 to 12. 


General lecture on telephone cable, including construction, 
necessary precautions in handling, etc. 

Instructor makes a complete splice in which he demonstrates 
the use of all tools, etc., but omitting emphasis on the details 
of the fundamental operations. 

Removing sheath and boiling out core of cable. 

Testing out and connecting the pairs which are to be joined 
together. 

Final boiling out, taping up splice and preparing lead sleeve 
for wiping joint. 

Wiping joint and completing splice. 















29 


ihe fundamental processes which are demonstrated during the 
mornings of the second, third, fourth, and fifth days are to be re¬ 
peated a number of times if necessary in order that the details of 
operation and their execution will be clear to each man. 

During the afternoons of the second, third, fourth, and fifth days, 
each man will attempt to reproduce, under the supervision of the 
instructor, the fundamental process which was demonstrated by 
the instructor during the mornings of those respective days. 

For the remainder of the first two weeks, in which there are seven 
full days of instruction, each man is to devote both morning and 
afternoon sessions to independent work in splicing. This, of course, 
is to be under the supervision of the instructor who will give each 
man as much personal attention as time will permit. After suffi¬ 
cient skill has been acquired in ordinary joint wiping, some special 
work may be given in repairing bullet holes in a cable and making 
potheads. Some instruction in line work is very desirable. The 
following questions suggest topics for study and practice: 

1. Explain step by step the process of splicing and wiping the lead joints on a 
telephone cable. 

2. To what distance should the lead sheath be removed on each end, and how is 
this accomplished? 

3. Why do you bind the cores with muslin at the ends of the sheath? 

4. Why is paper cable boiled out with paraffin? Describe the operation of boiling 
out before the wires are joined. 

5. How can you determine when the paraffin is hot enough? What is the proper 
temperature? What will be the result if the paraffin is too hot? Too cold? 

(I. When making a joint in a manhole, what precautions should be taken beforo 
lowering a pot of hot paraffin into the manhole? Why? 

7. Why are paper sleeves U3ed? If cables have red and white wires in one and red 
and blue in the other, how are they joined? 

8. Why is the splice wrapped in muslin? 

9. Describe how the wrapped splice is boiled out. 

10. How long should the lead sleeve be? 

11. How long should the wiped joint be? 

12. Suppose you have the splico mado and wrapped, but have forgotten to slip 
the lead sleeve over one end of the cable, how would you put a slee\e on. 

13. How do you close the seam in a split sleeve? 

14. If the lead sheath of a telephone cable is broken by a bullet, would you cut 
all the wires and make a splice? If not, what kind of a sleeve would be used to repair 
such a fault? Would you take off some of the sheath and boil out the cable with 
paraffin? 

15. Tell how to prepare the sleeve for a splice. Why are the ends scraped and 

tallowed? _ 

16. What are the pasters used for? What can be used for substitutes. 

17. When wiping a joint, where is most of the solder poured, and why? 

18 If you bum the lead sheath, what would you do? 

19* How would you inspect a wiped joint if it were in such a position that you 

could not see it from every angle? . 

20. Tell how to fill a splice with paraffin after the lead joints are wiped. Why is 
this done? IIow do you close up the holes? 


30 


21. What is the objection to leaving a cable open over night? When may thin be 
done, and what precautions are necessary? 

22. Explain step by step the process of making a potliead. 

23. How can you tell when the compound is hot enough? 

24. What may be used as a substitute for compound? 

25. Is the paper tube described in the S. C. Manual for making potheads necessary? 

26. In making a potliead, where do you put the ridged rubber wire? 

27. Make a sketch and explain the construction of the ordinary telephone cable. 
Why are wires of different colors? 

28. Make a sketch and explain the construction of lead covered twin power cable. 
What is the purpose of the lead sheath? 

29. Which is the better system of distribution, overhead or underground? 

30. About what is the standard distance between poles? 

31. Show by sketch how to turn a right-angle corner on a single pole. Show guy 
wires. 

32. In running wires through trees, should they be allowed to touch any part of 
the trees? 

33. (a) For what purpose are manholes used in conduit work? ( b ) How far apart 
are they usually placed? (c) Where are they preferably placed? 

34. How is the cable supported in manholes? 

35. What is a good formula for a concrete mixture for conduit work? 

36. What are the different kinds of conduit used for? How is vitrified clay con¬ 
duit kept in line when being laid? 

37. What is meant by rodding? Describe the operation of drawing in cable in 
an underground conduit system. 

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT NECESSARY FOR EACH MAN. 


Each. 


Total. 


1 stripping knife. 

1 box wood dresser.. 

1 lead scraper... 

1 small mirror...... 

1 pair electrician’s scissors. 

1 sheet-iron pan 16 by 36 by 3 inches deep 

1 tool bag. 

2 drv cells. 

2 gallons gasoline. 

5 pounds wiping metal. 

6 bars half-and-half solder. 


SI. 50 


$1.50 


1.50 

.10 

1.75 


1.50 

.10 

1.75 


4.50 


4.50 


. 35 
.25 
.50 


.70 

.50 

2.50 


.45 


2.25 


1 pound friction tape. 

500 paper sleeves.. 

10 feet white paper 3 inches wide.. 

2 pounds paraffine. 

5 lead sleeves for splicing 50 pair cable 
4 rolls muslin 3 by 10 inches. 


.35 


.15 I 
1.30 
.75 


Tools and equipment necessary for each 2 men: 

1 plumber’s gasoline furnace. 

1 6-inch solder pot. 

11-gallon enameled coffee pot.. 

1 3-inch ladle. 

1 blow torch. 

1 head receiver.... 

1 operator’s transmitter. 

20 feet 50 pair lead cable. 


.35 


.30 
6.50 
3.00 


25.45 


6.00 

1.50 
1.00 
1.00 

3.50 

2.50 

3.50 
5.00 


24.00 


Individual equipment for 15 men.$381.75 

Group equipment for 15 men. 168.00 

Total. 549.75 










































PUBLICATIONS OF THU FEDERAL BOARD FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

Annual Report for 1917. 

Bulletin No. X. Statement of Policies. 

♦Bulletin No. 2. Training Conscripted Men for Service as Radio and Buzzer Operators 
in the United States Army (International code). 

Bulletin No. 3. Emergency Training in Shipbuilding—Evening and Part-Time 
Classes for Shipyard Workers. 

♦Bulletin No. 4. Mechanical and Technical Training for < unscripted Men (Air Divis¬ 
ion, U. S. Signal Corps). 

Bulletin No. 5. Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. 

Bulletin No. (>. Training of Teachers for Occupational Therapy for the Rehabili¬ 
tation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. 

* Bulletin No. 7. Emergency War Training for Motor-Truck Drivers and Chauffeurs. 

♦Bulletin No. 8. Emergency War Training for Machine-Shop Occupations, Black- 
smithing, Sheet-Metal Working, and Pipe Fitting. 

♦Bulletin No. 9. Emergency War Training for Electricians, Telephone Repairmen, 
Linemen, and Cable Splicers. 

♦Bulletin No. 10. Emergency War Training for Gas-Engine, Motor-Car, and Motor 
Cycle Repairmen. 

♦Bulletin No. 11. Emergency War Training for Oxy-Acetylene Welders. 

♦Bulletin No. 12. Emergency War Training for Airplane Mechanics—Engine Repair¬ 
men, Woodworkers, Riggers, and Sheet-Metal Workers. 

* Emergency war training for conscripted and enlisted men. 


All communications should be addressed to 

The Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, I). C. 

(31) 


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